Sustainability Issues in the UK Supermarkets Tesco and Waitrose - Assignment Example

UK Supermarkets: Tesco & Waitrose 2008 1. Sustainability Issue A. Supermarket chains are faced with a global situation in which their activities are directly linked with environmental issues and climate change since the food chain, the primary article of sale by supermarkets, is a major contributor to carbon emissions. In fact, the food chain contributes one-fifth of the total carbon emission in the United Kingdom (Swan Network). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001) forecasts that carbon dioxide concentration may increase from 380 ppm now to 540-970 ppm in 2010 because of human development, changes in ecosystem resulting from shifts in land and energy use patterns, industrialization and other economic and livelihood factors. Analysis has proved that environmental footprint in industrialized societies have been much above the production processes and consumption requirements. In countries like the United Kingdom, the trend towards greater consumption and industrialization has a wide impact on the environment. For example, use of paper products has tripled over the past three decades and is expected to grow by another 50 percent by 2010, endangering forest cover of the world (World Resource Institute). The type of food that the supermarket sells has a direct repercussion on the environment. In particular, meats and foods that are produced with high doses of fertilizers, typically the greater proportion of food sold by supermarkets, have high carbon content. Modern farming methods have had serious adverse environmental effects. It is anticipated that the world population will touch 7.5 billion by 2020, resulting in scarcity of land and water, changes in economic relationships and dietary patterns and rapid rise in urbanization (Massari). Competition for food production has already set in a process of soil erosion and scarcity of cropland, rangeland and marine fisheries. Urbanization and industrialization have resulted in populations shifting from crop-based dietary patterns to meat-based ones, putting pressure on adequate food production. Increased animal farming has resulted in gas emissions, soil degradation and secondary impact through increased grain requirement for animal feedstock. Modern farming techniques, through overgrazing, result in serious soil erosion besides the methane and ammonia emission due the manure accumulation and pathogenic contamination. Increased animal farming has resulted in gas emissions, soil degradation and secondary impact through increased grain requirement for animal feedstock. Modern farming techniques, through overgrazing, result in serious soil erosion besides the methane and ammonia emission due the manure accumulation and pathogenic contamination. Many regions of the world already face over-exploitation of natural resources, degradation of natural resources and unbalanced management of agro-ecosystems. B. Supermarkets like Tesco and Waitrose, therefore, has a great role to play in keeping the environment sustainable, by stocking products like organic foods, using recyclable packaging and lowering energy consumption. Tesco has committed to reduce its carbon footprint by reducing energy use by half by 2010 and that of carbon per case of product delivered by 30 percent by 2009 (Mesure, 2007). According to Climate Brand Index, Tesco is perceived to rank top in environment sustainability (Retail Week, 2007). The company aims to reduce energy use by putting in use energy-efficient ovens, refrigerators and airconditioning and other equipment and efficient lighting, timers and motion detectors for switching off lighting when not needed. However, Tesco does not plan to stop selling carbon-intensive products (Ethical Corporation). Being an up-market store chain, Waitrose sells more organic food produced locally while Tesco imports most of the organic products although the government’s Organic Action Plan encourages retailers to sell 70 percent of its organic products sourced domestically (Green and Smithson, 2005). Waitrose sources 25 percent of organic apples, 99 percent of organic beef, 98 percent of organic carrots, 98 percent of organic chicken from UK suppliers while Tesco sources only 20 percent, 52 percent, 90 percent and 90 percent of these products from UK suppliers respectively. Waitrose does not stock conventional products like Tesco does. For example, premium organic eggs like Columbian Blacktail Eggs are stocked rather than typical intensive battery eggs although the former are three times as costly than the latter category (Elm Farm Research, 2006). Since Waitrose is the only superstore chain that sells CBT eggs, it has a dedicated supplier, Stonegate, for this product. The brand has been jointly developed by Waitrose and Stonegate. There are other dedicated organic product suppliers to Waitrose, like Rachel Rivers who has a 200 bird unit in Wiltshire. While Tesco stores occupy over 4,000 square feet each, Waitrose’s 180 stores are smaller, with an average of 25,000 square feet each, hence consume less electricity (Duff, 2005). The John Lewis Partnership, of which Waitrose is a member, offers products like television sets that shut down automatically instead of being in standby mode when switched off. Since October 2007, the partnership’s energy requirements are 100 percent from renewable sources, and Waitrose is replacing refrigerators in its stores for energy-efficient ones (Thomas, 2007). 2. Public Criticism of Tesco A. The most serious criticism that supermarkets in the United Kingdom face is that of exploiting the farmers and suppliers because of their strong bargaining power. Tesco, founded in 1924, is by far the largest supermarket chain in the United Kingdom with 50,000 product lines that range from food and grocery, toiletries, clothing, electronic goods, garden products and gasoline. The chain has about 2,000 stores, following the acquisition of Safeway and opening of 111 new stores in 2005-06 (Friends of the Earth, 2005). It has over 2,500 suppliers delivering from around the world to its 25 distribution centers across the UK. Till recently, suppliers were responsible for delivering products to the Distribution Centers but in 2001, the system was reversed (Retail technology, 2004). Among the supermarket chains in the UK, Tesco is the largest buyer of food and grocery. In 1999, the company represented 20 to 30 percent of the sales of the largest suppliers in the UK (Competition Commission, 2000). Although the chain has been reducing the number of suppliers over the years, only 230 suppliers contribute to over 0.1 percent of Tesco’s purchases. The largest supplier of groceries contributed 2.7 percent of Tesco’s purchases in 1999 (Competition Commission, 2000). Thus, Tesco has less concentration of suppliers than the other supermarkets in the UK. However, the Competition Commission also found that Tesco paid its suppliers an average 4 percent less than the industry. In its bid to source products at low costs, Tesco purchases from across the world. According to Friends of Earth (2005), the chain imported apples even when there was a bumper crop in the UK. Although there are 7,000 regional distribution centers in England, Wales and Scotland and Ireland, these source only 20 percent of the products sold by Tesco. Even with overseas suppliers, Tesco’s bargaining power is hugely at its own benefit. For example, between January 2002 and 2004, Tesco reduced the retail price of banana by 30 percent to boost sales. However, it maintained its own margin by reducing the payment to the importers by the same amount. As a result, the price cut was passed on the banana growers in Latin America who earned below subsistence wage on their banana produce (Friends of the Earth, 2000). Tesco is the only international supermarket chain in the UK, operating in 12 countries and earning 20 percent of its revenues from international sales (GPN, 2004). The chain’s international operations include stores in Eastern Europe and East Asia, geographical areas considered to be ‘emerging’. Beginning in 1998, Tesco has acquired 15 million sq feet selling space in the retail markets outside the UK. The global expansion of Tesco and other large UK and US retailers has altered to global supply chain. Prior to the entry of the multinational retailers, the supply chains in the emerging markets were largely fragmented. The MNC retailers have not only consolidated the supply chain but also use part of this for sourcing for home country stores. On the other hand, Tesco’s foreign subsidiaries source nearly 90 percent of its products from its home countries (GPN, 2004). The consolidation of sourcing for the foreign market stores and that of home market stores are encouraged by the cost advantage. For example, inward investment by Tesco in Thailand for the development of the supply chain in this country has enabled export of Thai products into the UK to the tune of GBP 40 million per annum (GPN, 2004). Generally, the retail sector is an employment generator. But, Tesco has been reducing employment over the years through various labor-saving business practices. In 1996, Tesco initiated just-in-time inventory management, on the lines of the Toyota practice, to reduce costs of handling stocks. To begin with, Tesco replaced shelves for wheeled dollies for the fastest moving products like soft drinks, achieving 99.8 percent availability for customers and stock cover of 3.5 days. The process also reduced the requirement of labor in order to replenish stocks on the shelves. Thereafter, Tesco began to alter its systems such that orders can be passed on to suppliers continuously rather than on a daily basis that would enable synchronization of supplies with demand. The next stage in the change in supply chain management was effective demand forecasting (Jones and Clarke, 2000). The lean thinking in supply chain management has no doubt reduced costs for Tesco but it has not compensated for the investments at the suppliers’ end. While Tesco is the largest retail chain in the UK, its formats are not as diversified as Waitrose, owned by the John Lewis Partnership, that has more up-market innovative formats that has not only provided it an opportunity to find a niche market but also address issues of corporate social responsibility. The innovations in format paid off with Waitrose’s revenues growing 6.4 percent in the second half of 2004 when consumer spending in the United Kingdom was sluggish. Although Waitrose has a national market share of about 3 percent, its share in south of England is 7 percent. Waitrose has a much more select list of suppliers than Tesco, most being regional suppliers. The Competition Commission (2000) found that Waitrose paid higher prices than Tesco to suppliers of similar product lines. While Tesco has faced supplier resentment repeatedly, which is reflected in the Competition Commission report (2000), Waitrose has a more cordial supplier relationship. B. Tesco has initiated multi-stakeholder audit of corporate social responsibility in its global operations as well as the supply chain. For example, there have been complaints on the working conditions in the South African apple and pear farms that supply to Tesco. The company undertook an audit and found no evidence of adverse working conditions. Despite this, the company created a forum in South Africa in 2006 by which it met workers, suppliers and the government representatives to hear their concerns. Similarly, there have been issues raised by the media regarding Tesco using child labor in the manufacturing facilities of clothing suppliers, Evitex and Harvest Rich, in Bangladesh. An independent audit found that the workers were in the age group above 16 (Walton et al, n.d). Tesco uses press releases as a major instrument for stakeholder engagements, particularly in issues regarding its suppliers. However, there have been criticisms that big chains like Tesco issue press releases as a marketing tool and usually do not reach the targeted audience (Whysall, 2005). Tesco’s stakeholders include customers, suppliers, employees, investors, non-governmental organizations and others in the supply and selling chain. The company is known as one of the most favored ones in the retail space because of the continuous communication that it maintains with all stakeholders. Over the recent years, the growth in consumer and shareholder activism has led to companies paying more focus on stakeholder management. For example, the concern with healthy eating habits, organic food and sustainability issues have forced retail companies like Tesco and Waitrose to sit up and take notice while these issues were not under the companies’ radar even 10 years ago. Companies like Waitrose not only supply what the customers want but stock products that are environment-friendly. Employees have also emerged as major stakeholders since smooth operations of the companies are found to be in their interests. A series of disclosures of unethical practices and corporate bankruptcies have raised this issue. As a result, companies like Waitrose are owned by employees. 3. Corporate Social Responsibility A. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) with regards to environment has been increasingly been considered as a serious issue in the business and government circles of all countries. In particular, retail companies that are high energy consuming and waste producing have a long term effect on the environment. Most governments now consider environmental reporting as part of their CSR. Traditional accounting practices that take into account only financial parameters do not sufficiently incorporate the companies’ performance vis-à-vis the environment. The Environmental Task Force of the European Federation of Accountants (FEE) prescribes environmental reporting that aims to provide “information about the environmental impact operational performance of an entity that is useful to relevant stakeholders in assessing their relationship with the reporting entity” (quoted in UNCTAD, 2000). There may be several approaches to environmental reporting – compliance based, toxic release inventory based, impact based performance, eco-balance approach, environmental burden approach, greenhouse gas indicator, sustainability reporting (UNCTAD, 2000). In the UK, the reporting system is a combination of impact based and environmental burden approach. Supermarkets depend on food and grocery produced by farmers hence they have a CSR towards them. While the balance of power in this supply chain is largely with the supermarkets, shareholders and to some extent consumers who benefit from the price benefits passed on to them, the suppliers are mostly at the receiving end of the hierarchy pyramid. Typically, larger the supermarket, lower the prices that they can extract from the suppliers. This has been most crucial for suppliers of Tesco. The “Emerging Thinking” report published by the Competition Commission in 2007 reported that over 33 percent of the suppliers said that they were requested for price cuts just before or even after delivery and half of them said there were delays in payments and nearly two-third said that they were asked to contribute to promotion costs (cited in Action Aid, 2007). Also the innovative marketing promotions initiated by the supermarkets often cost the suppliers heavy. Own-label branding by supermarkets, too, puts the suppliers at a disadvantage. Nearly 40 percent of supermarket sales in the UK are in the form of own-label brands, which is the highest in Europe (Fox and Vorley, 2004). Own-label brands are given an advantage in shelf-space since, besides being a high revenue-generator, this category also improves the corporate image of the chain. The close-ended relationship between the supermarkets and the Tier I suppliers of own-label products mean that supermarkets get access to merchandise at prices set by them and not at competitive prices. In the process, the wholesale market has emerged as the residual market where merchandise not sold as own-labels of supermarkets are sold, typically in remote geographical areas. UK supermarkets source food and grocery products from farmers at home as well as from abroad (Action Aid, 2007). It has been claimed that the emphasis on low cost sourcing by supermarkets have meant that there are gross violations of fair trade practices in the international arena. The suppliers are at the receiving end of maintenance of quality standards since the stiff stipulations on the part of the supermarkets imply a large cost for them. Dolan and Humphry (n.d) also point out, with examples from Kenya and Zimbabwe, that conditions laid out by the UK supermarkets for the purchase of fresh vegetables determine the pattern of exclusion and inclusion of exporters in the sub-Saharan countries, leading to income disparities within the supplying country. In both Kenya and Zimbabwe, export of horticultural products is controlled by a few individuals or private companies. Although trade in these items has grown by a large extent over the last two decade, the concentration of export income has meant that there is limited benefit to the overall economy. Despite the tilt in the bargaining power towards the large retailers in the UK food and grocery market, the supermarkets are not the only ones that are able to benefit from the value chain, as elaborated by Cox (2002). For example, drink manufacturers have their margin squeezed as a result of increasing pressure from the large retailers promoting own-label brands, sugar processors and beet farmers managed to maintain healthy profits (cited in GPN, 2004). Besides, the value chain is not always linear and becomes complicated in instances like when a manufacturer owns a retail chain but also sells to other retailers. B. Tesco’s ten-point corporate social responsibility program recently announced are the following: * Halve energy use by 2010 * Double customer recycling by 2008 * Ensure all carrier bags are degradable by 2006 and carrier bag use cut by 25% over the next two years * Introduce nutritional labeling on all 7,000 Tesco own-brand products by 2007 * Launch a healthy eating and nutritional education program for families in deprived areas * Get 2 million people running, cycling or walking in events in the run-up to the 2012 Olympics * Reduce the frequency and noise of deliveries to Express stores * Increase local community consultation before building new superstores * Help small suppliers by holding open days across the UK * Improve local sourcing by introducing regional counters into stores and improve labeling to highlight local produce (Baker, 2006). Tesco has formed a Corporate Responsibility (CR) Committee that assesses the risks arising from the business, develop a CR strategy, review the social, ethical and environmental issues, encourage best practices, identify opportunities to move towards a sustainable business and report on the key CR indices (tesco website). Tesco has also joined hands with Unilever to support the Forum for the Future, which is developing a CR strategy for the retail industry for 2022. The CR website of the company reports in detail all the steps that it has taken towards this end. In particular, Tesco, although it has not focused exclusively towards organic food like Waitrose has, provides choices towards this end to customers through its stocks. Besides, the company has engaged in providing information on its carbon footprint, like putting the symbol of an aeroplane on all air-freighted products as this form results in the highest emission. It has also engaged in a number of DEFRA supported educational projects on climate change (Tesco website). The most critical ethical issue for a retail company like Tesco is its relationship with suppliers. Despite its pronounced claim of supporting suppliers, however, there are various issues that hurt the latter. Price cuts are more critical for suppliers from the developing world who have little bargaining power with the supermarkets and are dependent on them for their revenues. As one producer in South Africa said, “A buyer for Tesco picks up the phone and says x is offering me apples for GBP 1 a carton cheaper; meet him or I take you out of the programme. Supermarkets like Tesco have all the power in the world and we have to cut costs as far as we can. We’re really at their mercy” (quoted in Action Aid, 2007). Waitrose reports on its CR achievements every two years (Waitrose website). However, Waitrose’s achievement particularly towards environmental responsibility is higher than that of Tesco’s. For example, in 2006, Waitrose became the first UK retailer that was committed to sell only line-caught fish. It is also member of multi-stakeholder Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, recognizing that there is an urgent need for sustainable palm oil production in the tropical countries. Besides, the company has a streamlined recycling and waste management policy as well as a sourcing policy. It uses recyclable products like paper and cardboard for packaging. Food waste by Waitrose is minimum because of accurate ordering. 4. Ethical Issues and Stakeholder Model Ethical dilemmas occur most typical in consumer and retail markets. George Akerlof’s ‘lemons problem’ highlight the issue of insufficient income when a buyer is palmed off a second-hand defective car – a lemon – since the seller necessarily has more information about the car than the buyer. Such issues often occur when companies hide information about its products. However, companies that are concerned about its credibility in the market, it would maintain its integrity with its products and consumers. Companies need to focus on its branding as well as the credibility of its products in order to solve ethical dilemma (Black, n.d). Product safety is the most crucial ethical dilemma that many companies, particularly those producing and selling food products and drugs. Extensive testing of products may involve huge costs to companies which may be tempted to bypass such costs. Certification and branding requirements are often compromised, by reducing the type size of statutory warnings on, cigarettes for example, is an ethical issue endangering the customers’ health. Besides, pressures of meeting product delivery deadlines may also put managers in ethical dilemma over the necessity of undertaking some critical tests. Also, a company operating in a global environment may be required to fulfill a number of legislatures and the company is often forced to manipulate such requirements. Other typical ethical issues include bribes to overcome customs and certification requirements and to get important contracts. Since the 1990s, there has been a lot of criticism about the supermarkets in the UK regarding their pricing and competition strategy, particularly in regard to their relationship with the suppliers. Various reports have been filed to the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) regarding infringement on competition in the food and grocery market. For example, the House of Commons Welsh Affairs Committee published a report on the livestock industry in Wales in 1998, alleging disparity in prices between the farm gate and the supermarket; a Nottingham University study found that branded products got a beating from look-alike products sold at supermarkets; the Consumers’ Association also claimed that manufacturers’ products got a disadvantage in shelf display in the supermarkets in comparison to the latter’s own-label products; an OFT research paper published in 1998 found that the retail market in the United Kingdom lacked competition not only because of selling power of large producers but also because of the buying powers (Competition Commission, 2000). Because of the tilt of the balance of power towards the supermarkets, suppliers were discouraged form investing in product development and innovation. As a follow-up of these findings, the OFT introduce a Code of Practice in March 2002 between the suppliers and the supermarkets in order to protect suppliers, particularly the small suppliers and farmers. The Code applied to supermarkets that had more than 8 percent market share, which meant that only four chains were under its purview (Friends of Earth, 2003). There have been allegations that the Code was weakly worded and open to alternative interpretations. In a review report in 2004, OFT found that there is a “widespread belief among suppliers that the Code is not working effectively” and it “has not brought about any change in supermarket behavior” (quoted in Fox and Vorley, 2004). Most suppliers claimed that they feared victimization from the buyers if they reported violation of the Code to the OFT and hence preferred to be silent. On the whole, the growth of supermarkets in the UK since the 1980s has overtaken that of the producers’ earnings from sale of food and grocery. Particularly through an aggressive expansion strategy, that includes mergers and acquisitions among others, the ‘big four’ supermarkets have developed oligopsony power vis-à-vis the suppliers. As a result, while a large retailer may contribute as much as 10-20 percent of total sales of a producer, the same producer may contribute just about 1-2 percent of the retailers’ sales (GPN Working Paper, 2004). There has been a lot of concern about entry barriers for small stores like Waitrose and local convenience stores that the ‘big four’ raise. It is claimed that the large supermarket chains outbid the others and the regulators consider only the bid prices rather that other parameters like corporate social responsibility, supplier relationship, worker relationship, etc. while granting permission for setting up new stores, The only restriction that the big supermarkets face are land acquisition since these are essentially big format stores (BBC News, 2006). the supply chain logistics involves elimination of the wholesaler and direct sourcing from manufacturers and producers through the regional distribution centers thereby increasing supermarket margins. This has to some extent resulted in monopsony power of the supermarkets in determining the prices of products they buy from suppliers. It is recommended that Tesco and Waitrose take their CR more seriously. The stakeholders for the retail industry include not only customers and employees but also the suppliers and the environment. To begin with, both companies should begin a regular and detailed environment reporting, not only in qualitative terms as they do now but also quantitatively. There are direct costs of reporting environmental impacts in the form of the requirement of appropriate environment management systems, employing specialist staff, internal auditors and external verifiers, publication and distributions costs and a potential ‘reporting risk’. These direct and potential costs often deter companies from environmental reporting. On the other hand, there are indirect costs associated with not reporting environmental impacts. For example, the companies could end up with inferior environment profile than competitors, resulting in loss of markets, investors and other possible benefits. The benefits of environmental reporting, however, are in the form of development of strong environmental management systems, high employee morale, commitment to continuous improvement through environmental issues as a strategic parameter, assurance to investors and lenders over long term sustainability, minimization or possibilities of regulatory intervention, improved access to supply chain, positive publicity, etc. Since a large part of food products in the UK is sold through supermarkets like Tesco and Waitrose, there has been a shift from subsidy-protected farming community to commercially-oriented farmers who have a high degree of association in terms of farming techniques and product portfolios with the supermarkets. Supply chain management is also largely outsourced to the suppliers who are in charge of packaging and inventory management under service and delivery agreements with the supermarkets. While the balance of power in this supply chain is largely with the supermarkets, shareholders and to some extent consumers who benefit from the price benefits passed on to them, the suppliers are mostly at the receiving end of the hierarchy pyramid. Both retailer, Tesco and Waitrose need to have a more exclusive policy for a collaborative relationship with suppliers. Most supermarkets have exclusive agreements with suppliers, very few of which are multinational companies. For example, sales of Proctor and Gamble, UK to supermarkets contributed only 3 percent of the company’s total sales in 1999, the largest being to Tesco, at 0.85 percent (Competition Commission, 2000). As one large supplier said, “Price negotiations take place on a ‘by product’ basis. It is extremely difficult to leverage negotiation power using size of business in another area as a lever; in some cases to do so could be considered unlawful. In fact there is an argument that a smaller producer of non-strategic products may face less pressure on issues such as overriders, as customers will expend more effort on the large suppliers to offer potentially more benefits in key areas” (as told to Competition Commission, 2000). Tesco and Waitrose must engage in a more equitable price negotiation with the suppliers. Suppliers also cannot manage their production process or inventory as swiftly as the retailers for lack of information on changes in demand. Hence, they often end up with huge amounts of unsold products. Since inventory management is mostly the responsibility of the suppliers, this involves huge cost burdens for the suppliers. Farmers allege that while supermarkets respond to changing customer preferences at a high speed (for example, the shift to organic food), they take very long, if they do so at all, to respond to the changing supply scenario (which is exemplified by the fact that supermarket prices of food products hardly ever respond to seasonal variations in output and wholesale prices). Tesco and Waitrose should evolve a collaborative supply chain in which there is smooth flow of information to suppliers. 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