Hot desking: an approach, developed and emerged as a new management technique in organizations - Literature review Example

? Hot Desking Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter focuses on the evaluation and analysisof secondary research conducted pertaining to the topic under consideration in the form of journal articles, reports, statistical reports, and websites. The chapter aims to develop an in depth understanding of the research that has already been conducted and drive conclusive results. It thus states different theories and ideas that relate to this new organizational management practice of hot desking. The literature review further explains the causes and circumstances in which the practice should most appropriately be implemented. The following chapter thus discusses theories and studies to support the above mentioned facts (Fleming 2011). Hot desking is a relatively new approach that developed and emerged as a new management technique in organizations in the late 1980’s. This new technique enabled organizations to realise cost savings as the highly mobile workers are not allocated separate desks to carry out the official work but are rather given a shared facility that can be used at differently scheduled time (Roberta 2009). This allowed greater flexibility and a higher utilization of the office space with a shared workstation to facilitate the cost cutting solutions (Julie 2007). This was most applicable to the sales staff where the nature of work requires sales staff to spend a considerable amount of time out of the office premises. So during that time the workstations can be efficiently utilized by other sales staff members so that there is minimum waste and maximum utilization (Hayman 2009). In more literal terms, hot desks are “small, utilitarian desks with phones and data connections, with just enough room for employees to work with their computers and any paperwork” (Brendan 2004). This is a kind of satellite office technique whereby employees in an office space share the printers and photocopiers. Since the workstation is a shared device, ID tags are used to provide each “visitor” to the system with a unique access to the work station (Huff, Sproull and Kiesler 1989). The implication and magnitude of relevance for this management technique has increased in recent times again because of the increasing macro economic pressures and financial recession which has mounted the need for organizations to cut down on their overheads (Carl 2011). Hence techniques like hot desking have emerged not only as cost cutting solutions but also to provide organizations with greater flexibility to respond to the changing economic conditions as the economic cycle becomes more volatile (Hayman 2009). Hence, hot desking provides a unique opportunity for management to downsize without actually cutting on the amount of work done in the office space (Tsai 2011). The move towards a paperless economy has initiated practices that involve wireless connections, mobile devices, hand held devices and laptops in order to minimize organizational waste and long chains of bureaucracy (Kenneth 2007). This has given rise to a greater utilization of office space and managing human resources. The upsurge of free lance workers has also increased the hot desking trend in the recent years whereby workers are able to operate from their homes thus categorising the hot desking employees into two broad categories. One is the concept of hot desking from home and second is the hot desking on the move. In both scenarios, hot desking has provided with advantages (Carl 2011) and disadvantages (Fleming 2011) for the employees as well as the organizations (Erik 2010). Technological Solutions to Cost Cutting Hot desking has resulted in a physical relocation of the employees thus fundamentally altering the organizational structure. This has been a direct consequence of the technological advancement that has changed the management and communication platforms for organizations (Markus 2006). Mobile devices, wireless networks and electronic interfaces have substituted the organization’s man power, in attempt to lower the agency costs and transaction costs (Kenneth 2007). This is because as companies face recessionary pressures to lower their costs, they have substituted the practice of allocating one desk to each employee with more flexible hours of working shifts that enable firms to substitute the same workstations for a number of employees. They hence do not have to invest more in capital in order to support their operations. However, the feeling of disassociation and lack of identification is not the most attractive solution to achieve optimum performance after all. A social marginalization and alienation of employees which results from a lack of a sense of belonging has resulted in an adverse impact on organizational performance on the whole and deters organizational attachment because an employee who is formally identified with the organization will be more motivated to perform better than an employee is not (Hirst 2011). Self Categorization Theory The theory of self categorization highlights the conceptualization of organizational attachment and defines the process of cognitive identification which results from a physical proximity of the employee to the organization. Face to face communication is a form of physical proximity which elicits greater interaction and thus identification with the organization (Ashforth and Albert 2000). This is because when employees are in close proximity, they communicate more often and face to face communication with the employees, subordinates and staff elicits a greater sense of belongingness than being a member of the organization who is not physically present within the organization to carry out more communication. However, the technological alternatives deter employees to form an internalization of the norms and culture of their work place as flexible hours reduce physical contact with the work place (Haslam 2004). As can be seen, internet with its various features to communicate with employees who are not in close proximity like VoIP, video conferencing, Skype etc are all the tools that enable them to be related to the organization with considerable physical distance. In this case, even though there is communication yet the employees will not internalise the norms and culture of the organization as they will not be physically present within that environment to be able to internalise the norms. Thus the importance of employees having to identify with the organization has gradually decreased whereby the main goal for the management is not to gain employee motivation by a provision of sense of belongingness to the organization rather, escalation in multi tasking, free lancing and flexi hours has resulted in an augmentation of group identification as a means to generate employee commitment and performance (Ashforth and Mael 1989). An important premise in this context is the impact of physical arrangement of the work place on the employee identification and thus performance which is more salient to the organization success. The theory suggests that both physical as well as psychological proximity to the organization are the main driving forces of identification which also explains the current trend of highly motivates task based work force (Laschinger 2004). This means it is not mandatory that employees working in traditional organizations are prone to a greater degree of identification as it is not just the physical involvement with the organization that develops attachment, but the psychological involvement is just as important. Thus when employees are hot desking, they are still able to develop the involvement and attachment that is necessary identifies themselves with that particular organization (Millward 2007). Spatial Theory of Organization The theory of organizational space illustrates the importance of spatial consideration in developing improved business processes and performance as opposed to the “boundary fixed” structure of traditional organizations (Rene 2008). The flattening structure of the contemporary organizational structures has posed significant changes in the business process functioning of these organizations which are greatly impacted by the geographical boundaries. However, the “resource base” (Cornelissen 2006) view of organizations today emphasizes the need for tangible and tangible resources that enable a firm to gain competitive advantage over its competitors and these resources can follow the spatial topology; physical boundaries, social boundaries and mental boundaries (Barney 2001). Physical boundaries pertain to the flow of interaction within an organization; social boundaries are the group identification and bonding of the members of an organization; and mental boundaries relate to the organization’s culture made up of its norms and core values that are common amongst all members of the organization (Bryan and Joyee 2007). Hence, the boundaries not only provide individuals with distinct identities and bonding but also establish the threshold of its members, its ability of an organization to facilitate coming in and going out of different members. It is important for organization members to operate within these boundaries in order to increase performance (Ashkenas 2002). Lefebvre’s Spatial Triad The French philosopher, Henry Lefebvre illustrated in his Spatial Triad Theory the three fundamental “elements of space; representations of space, spatial practices, and spaces of representation” (Ceri 2005). Representation of space is referred to the conceived space, spatial practice is the perceived space and “embraces production and reproduction” of all the social formations. A space of representations is the conceptualised space which is characterised by symbols, and codifications. Representation of space is the closer to the societal interactions and constitutes the mental constructs developed socially. In the context of an organization, it is essential that all elements of the triad are adequately integrated in order to enhance the performance of the organization on the whole. If “representation of space and spatial practices dominate the triad” (Elden 2004), the performance of the organization will improve but also will cause certain hurdles for the optimum performance level. Thus, for an event to be effective triad elements must follow a balance that is continually informed. This gives organizations a unique opportunity to identify problematic areas and how to handle these issues (Elden 2004). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Maslow categorized the human needs into five distinct needs namely “physiological, safety, social, esteem and self actualization”. Physiological needs can be referred to as the most basic needs of hunger and sleep. Safety need is the need to feel protected and can be achieved through security alarms, police stations or insurance plans. Social need is the need to belongingness (Mohan 2011). This is essential as far as human is considered as a member of the social net of community. In an organization, the employees need to feel a sense of belonging to the organization which can be deterred by the modern day cost cutting solutions as hot desking. Esteem needs are met through employee recognition. However, on the other hand in some organizations it can also be inferred that as long as employees are sufficiently involved in the business processes and are allowed flexibility in working practices, they are more inclined towards having the sense of belongingness (Ceri 2005). Belbin’s Team Work Theory The theory of team work by Belbin suggests that team work is essential for an organization whereby in conjecture with the spatial theory, this illustrates that team work in a characteristic of organizations held in the boundary threshold (Aitor, Swailes and Senior 2007). There are nine roles identified with team workers that are taken up by the team members to accomplish the given tasks. These roles are that of a coordinator, shaper, a plant, resource investigator, implementer, monitor, team worker, finisher and specialists. This sort of an integrated activity can take place when members are in close proximity to one another. However, in conventional practices like hot desking, shift working and flexi hours, the dominant approach is that of an individualist orientation (John and Antonio 2011). Team work cannot be accomplished with hot desking as fluently as it can be in a traditional organizational structure where the members have formed a closed nit of identification and social cohesion (Michael 2003). Determinants of Job Satisfaction Working environment is amongst the most important determinants of job satisfaction. Rose and Wright (2005) suggest that employees who are consulted in decision making, timely informed of changes and involved in decision making experience less stress, anxiety and are more satisfied than their counterparts. These extrinsic factors combined with intrinsic factors like the employee’s ability to finish a task determine his job satisfaction. If applied to the context of hot desking, it can be said that workers experience relatively low levels of job satisfactions as they are not directly involved in decision making (Bulent 2011). Moreover, flexibility in the work place is also an important determinant of employee job satisfaction. The management literature indicates that flexibility in an organization has two aspects; the functional perspective and the temporal perspective (Bulent 2011). The functional perspective indicates the control an employee has on the task and the task desecration experienced by the customer sales representatives who have greater control over the variety of tasks. On the other hand, the temporal perspective indicates the importance of flexible hours, working at unsocial hours and shifts. Thus customer sales representatives who have greater control over the functional and temporal flexibility dimension have greater job satisfaction (Annakis 2011). Flexible Hours; a Core Component of Hot Desking Flexible working hours which is the core characteristic of hot desking is one of the major determinants of job satisfaction in organizations. The case of Standard Chartered Bank in Singapore highlights this aspect of “workplace revolution”. As part of its alternative workplace solutions program, the bank came up with hot desking features and flexi hours for conducive environment for its employees and customers alike. At Standard Chartered, workstations were not being used 50% of the times. This was seen as an important step towards cutting down on overheads whereby the space was cut down by allocating 30% of the desks for flexi hour shifts and utilized for more functional activities like meetings. This resulted in higher job satisfaction for the employees as they were able to better organize their times accordingly to the job increasing satisfaction and hence performance of a more well motivate workforce (Emily 2010). Moving Towards a Model of Hybrid Organizations A hybrid organization has been conceptualized as having the three most important elements of people, technology and workplace in equal and proportionate terms (Scott 2011). Hence, a hybrid organizational model is where the employees are free to work in ways that can result in maximum productivity in terms of flexible working hours, and innovative work place design that could include everything from ergonomic furniture to shared workstations. Conventional organizational structures were characterized by static and rigid procedures that directed flow of information and delegated tasks (George 2002). However, the hybrid model provides organizations with greater flexibility to respond to the changing environmental conditions with sustainable organizational resilience and fluidity (George 2002). Philips is one of the leading companies to use hot desking approach as part of its hybrid organizational structure with the entire organization being wireless enabled hence supporting mobile communication and hot desking instead of landlines and fixed desks. This enables Philips to develop a more coordinated working environment for its workforce comprising of 40,000 employees (Scott 2011). Effective Communication Model Communication is essential for an organization to develop successful business processes and achieve competitive advantage. Management must ensure a smooth flow of two way communication within the organization (Berry 2011). It is even more challenging to ensure effective communication in virtual teams. The use of internet, management information systems that facilitate contemporary management techniques like hot desking have changed the very structure of collection and distribution of data within organizations. Hence, the computer mediated communication technologies have enabled the existence of virtual teams which extend beyond organizational boundaries (Kozlowski and Bell 2002). The formation process for a virtual team is similar to that of a face to face team as it involves the basic stages of forming, norming, and conforming within to develop effective team tasks. Although virtual teams are less costly, more cost efficient, and more diverse in harnessing ideas and suggestions from the best human resource, it is not without its down side, there exists a lack of information sharing between team members as opposed to face to face team communications. Therefore, the benefits and distinct responsibilities of each team member must be clearly communicated in order to gain the same level of performance as in a face to face team (Alderfer 1987). Impact of Work Environment on Transfer of Skills The degree to which the trainees of an organization apply the knowledge and skills in practical situations within the working premises is referred to as “training transfer” (Kupritz and Terron 2011). However, with the proliferation of external influences on the organizations business processes and expanded boundaries that no longer limits the worker mobility; transfer of skills extends to the internal as well as external elements of the organization. The traditional evaluation model for linear structures, Kirkpatrick evaluation model only focuses on the application of skills on the job rather than encompassing the extend of the entire organization. Hence, to evaluate the impact of work environment, the organization must be considered on the whole (Irwin 1975). The climate of transfer of learned skills, support of co workers, technology to support transfer, organizational culture of learning are all important variables in determining the effectiveness of transferred skills (Alison 2007). Moreover, the variable of work place design has become an important component of the Total Quality Management (TQM) system for organizations and reengineering processes to improve operational efficiency of the task force (Kupritz and Terron 2011). Thus it can be concluded that the functional features of the organization which include the structural, aesthetic and ergonomic properties of the physical environment greatly influence the transfer of skills within an organization. Another important factor to facilitate or impede transfer of skills is the workplace design. The architectural complexity, layout of the office, doors, cubicles, windows all add to the privacy needs of workers and employees, an extent of which is important in the skill transfer process (Baldwin 1988). However, it must also be noted that these features of physical environment are missing in the hot desking approach or the contact of each employee is minimal to the physical environment which means that the transfer of learned skills is relatively difficult in hot desking as compared to traditional approach (Kupritz and Terron 2011). Hot Desking Implications in Business Organizations Thus it can be inferred that hot desking gives opportunity to an existence of “non territorial offices” whereby offices can be designed with relatively smaller physical spread. Therefore, significant savings can be experienced in terms of rent costs, equipment management and constant use of the capita (Alison 2007). In organizations that hire more part time staff like in call centres, the number of seats is fixed whereas workers have different shifts hence need to be accommodated in those limited seating arrangements instead of having a separate desk for each part time staff member who will make it greatly uneconomical (Brindley 1997). It not only cuts down the fixed and variable costs but also renders greater waste management control on the staff members who then spend less time in talking, for example (Alison 2007). However, on the other hand many studies have illustrated the possible drawbacks of hot desking. One of the arguments pertains to the occupational health and safety issues in organizations whereby the employees in hot desking are at a greater vulnerability to disease and infections. For example, the employee using the hot desk may not clean the desk properly or the design of the furniture may not be ergonomic to suite the requirements of individual employees. It also deters individuals from personalizing the work station. This also results in less job satisfaction as employees do not have a sense of ownership (Boyd 2003). Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1 Introduction: The research methodology is the base of every research and it helps the researcher to adapt a systematic approach to conduct his research. It is very important for a researcher to adopt the correct research methodology in order to get his desired research. This chapter discusses the methodology, which is used for the data collection of this research. Different sources of information and tools, which are used, have been highlighted in this methodology section. The approach that is used to provide primary and secondary data gives a meaningful conclusion to this research considering the limitations of the study. 3.2 Adopted Research Methodology: The purpose of research methodology is to follow a research paradigm, which in the case of the present research is the interpretivist paradigm as the current study aims to focus on hot desking using a case study of Cisco and present a discussion of the results based on the researcher’s own interpretation (Holloway 1997). Based on the interpretivist paradigm, qualitative research methodology is used for this case study in order to reach the desired goals in a given time period. This qualitative methodology is used because accurate results can be achieved and the manipulation of the data collected also becomes easy for the researcher (Cook and Farmer 2011). This method collects and discusses subjective information and can examine difficult research questions, which may not be possible in the quantitative research method. Inductive Approach: The researcher has used inductive approach in order to generalize the conclusion derived from the findings in this research. In inductive approach, the researcher derives a hypothesis to build a case for hot desking for companies like the case study used in this report based on descriptive discussion of the data collected from the primary research designed for this report. This approach prevents the researcher to go beyond the limitations of this research and also to study the hypothesis on the basis of appropriate data, legalities and the academic model used by the previous researchers. Inductive approach makes easy for the researcher to test hypothesis because in this approach, the sample size of the respondents is very less which makes easy to generate and evaluate their responses (Alan 2003). 3.3 Data Collection: 3.3.1 Primary Research: Questionnaire: Data is collected through a survey questionnaire in which open-ended questions are asked to the Cisco employees (Brace 2008). The first five questions were regarding the demographics of the employees, which include name, gender, age, designation and income. After the demographics, other questions have been asked regarding the time which they spend inside the office. This helps the researcher to observe the involvement of the employee inside the office. Then comprehensive questions have been asked regarding hot desking. Opinion of the Cisco employees is asked regarding hot desking because the opinions of the employees have an important significance regarding hot desking approach and the implementation of the system depends on their opinion. Then questions are asked about the output which the employees are giving because the output given by the employees directly affects the performance of the company. Question regarding the influence of hot desking in the performance of the employee is asked because comfort level of the employee during their work is important for the organization to know in order to get the result regarding hot desk approach. Question regarding the culture has also been asked because it is important to understand the change of culture that is made by hot desk and culture helps to create a healthy environment of any organization. A very important question regarding the future of hot desking is asked that whether it is useful in the future or it doesn’t have any important significance in the upcoming time. This question is asked in order to understand the needs of the employees and also to judge whether they are happy with the system or they are not satisfied. Question regarding the effect of security due to hot desk is also been asked because the security can also effect the performance of the employees and if they don’t feel secure inside the office premises, it is almost impossible to get maximum output from them. The questionnaire is focusing on hot desking because this system cannot be completely implemented or excluded without knowing the opinion of the Cisco employees. Interview with managers: Interview is conducted with five managers working in different departments of Cisco. These managers are selected from different departments in order to get the opinion from all the divisions of the company. The managers are responsible for making a healthy working environment inside the office therefore they are selected for the interview. 3.3.2 Secondary Research: Internet is the main secondary source used in this research. Different articles, books, research journals, newspapers, and company reports are used in this research (Saunders et al 2007). These sources are very helpful in making the objectives of this research regarding the significance of the hot desk in the environment of the office. 3.3.3 Sampling: Sampling is define as a process to select the units, for example individuals, groups’ that are taken from a population and are of great important. Learning the sample, we might practically simplify our conclusions reversely from a population that was taken for the sample (William 2006). The researcher in sampling takes a group or groups of population to conduct the research on them (Statistics 2011). When an institute or association needs information, it is gathered together by someone else that is called the secondary information or the information is gathered by their own that is called primary information. This information collecting is done by sampling that is defined as putting together information from a given example of a sample of the population they are concerned in (Neville and Sidney 2004). The purpose of this research is to find the satisfaction level of the employees regarding the sitting arrangement in the office so a group of population working inside the Cisco office is taken for the sampling. In total, 50 employees working in the office are taken for the research and the result extracted should be based on this sample size. These 50 employees are taken from different departments because each department have its own point of view therefore it is necessary to select the sample size from all the departments. Sample size is been kept lesser in order to get more appropriate and accurate result. Types of Sampling: The two types of sampling methods are: 1. Probability Method: This type of method involves the random sampling of the data. Different units of population and equal probabilities are involved in order to have method of random selection. 2. Non-probability Method: There is no involvement of random sampling in the non-probability method. This type of sampling does not rely on the probability theory of rationale (Doherty 1994). 3.4 Basis for Analysis: Since the study is descriptive in nature which makes use of a case study approach to explore the application and possibilities of hot desking for companies therefore it could be stated that the basis for analysis are subjective to the researcher’s own know-how, understanding, and ability to interpret the data collected from the primary research. However, all efforts have been made to deliver meaningful discussion based on the literature review included in this report. 3.4 Limitations: The major limitation of this study is that not enough research have been done in the past regarding the hot desk so it is difficult to find the material regarding the satisfaction of the employees. The opinion of the employees is based on their likes and dislikes. It is hard to find the practical result from them because the opinion of the employees can be biased and the negativity or positively regarding hot desk is based on biasness. The employees feel little hesitant in openly expressing their point of view regarding hot desk because their decision is also based on the decision of their fellow colleagues. The source through which the questionnaire was sent is internet so it was difficult to know whether the employees is filling the questionnaire themselves or some other person is filling the questionnaire for him. In addition, the interest level of the employees is also not known that whether they are filling the questionnaire giving their full concentration or they are taken the questionnaire just as a formality of the company. Face to face meeting or interview could have been more effective because it is easy to judge the reaction of the employee and the concentration level is good due to the presence of the other person. However, it was impossible for the researcher to take this route. Time constraint was also a major limitation of this research. The researcher who was conducting this research had less time to evaluate the data and it was difficult for him to manage the time. In addition, there was a big difficulty in understanding the result of the research and it took more time to understand and write the conclusion of this research. List of References Aitor, A., Swailes, S. and Senior, B., 2007. Belbin's Team Role Model: Development, Validity and Applications for Team Building. Journal of Management Studies Vol. 44 Issue 1, pp.96-118, 23p. Alan, S., 2003. Research Methods for Business Students. NY: Pearson Education Limited. Alderfer, C.P., 1987. An intergroup perspective on group dynamics: Handbook of organizational behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Alison, B., 2007. The construction of control: the physical environment and the development of resistance and accommodation within call centres. New Technology, Work and Employment Vol. 22 Issue 3, pp.246-259, 14p. Annakis, J., 2011. Exploring Monitoring, Work Environment and Flexibility as Predictors of Job Satisfaction within Australian Call Centres. International Journal of Business and Management Vol. 6 Issue 8, pp.75-93, 19p. Ashforth, B.E. and Albert, S., 2000. Organizational Iidentity and Identification. Academy of Management Review Vol. 25, pp.13-17, 5p. Ashforth, B.E. and Mael, F., 1989. Social Identity Theory and the Organization. Academy of Management Review Vol. 14, p.20p. Ashkenas, R.e.a., 2002. The Boundaryless Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (Revised Second Edition). Baldwin, T.T., 1988. Transfer of training: A review and directions for future Research Vol. 47 Issue 1. Personnel Psychology, pp.63-105, 43p. Barney, J.B..A.M.A., 2001. The Resource – Based View: Origins and Implications. The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management, pp.124-88. Berry, G.R., 2011. Enhancing Effectiveness on Virtual Teams. Journal of Business Communication Vol. 48 Issue 2, pp.186-206, 21p. Boyd, C., 2003. Human Resource Management and Occupational Health and Safety. London: Routledge. Brace, I., 2008. Questionnaire Design: How to Plan, Structure and Write Survey Material for Effective Market Research. New York: Kogan Page Publishers. Brendan, R.B., 2004. Home Workplace: A Handbook for Employees and Managers. San Francisco: CMP Media LLC. Brindley, D., 1997. "Yes, I Work Here”- Personalizing a Work Cubicle. U.S. News and World Report Vol. 122 Issue 25, pp.70, 1. Bryan, L.L. and Joyee, C.I., 2007. Better Strategy Through Organizational Design. McKinsey Quarterly No.2, pp.21-29. Bulent, M., 2011. Salespeople's Knowledge-Sharing Behaviors with Coworkers Outside the Sales Unit. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management Vol. 31, pp.103-122, 20p. Carl, E., 2011. Managing the Modern Office. British Journal of Administrative Management Issue 74, pp.34-35, 1p. Ceri, W., 2005. Representations of Space, Spatial Practices and Spaces of Representation: An Application of Lefebvre’s Spatial Triad. Culture and Organization Vol. 11 Issue 3, pp.209-220, 12p. Cook, D. and Farmer, L., 2011. Using Qualitative Methods in Action Research: How Librarians Can Get to the why of data. NY: American Library Association. Cornelissen, J.P., 2006. Making Sense of Theory Construction: Metaphor and Disciplined Imagination. Organization Studies Vol.22, pp.1579 – 1597. Elden, S., 2004. Between Marx and Heidegger: politics, philosophy and Lefebvre’s. The Production of Space Antipode, pp.86-105p. Emily, C., 2010. Workplace revolution at Standard Chartered (cover story). Enterprise Innovation Vol. 6 Issue 3 , pp.20-21, 2p. Erik, B., 2010. Wired for Innovation : How Information Technology Is Reshaping the Economy. USA: MIT Press. Fleming, R., 2011. Hot Desking Not Always Such a Hot Idea. Government News Vol. 31 Issue 3, pp.54-54, 1p. George, C., 2002. Try Hot Desking. Times Educational Supplement, pp.28, 1/3p. Growingbusiness, 2011. Hotdesking. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 24 December 2011]. Haslam, A., 2004. Psychology in Organizations: A Social Identity Approach. London: Sage Publications (2nd edition). Hayman, J.R., 2009. Flexible work arrangements: exploring the linkages between perceived usability of flexible work schedules and work/life balance. Community, Work and Family; Aug2009, Vol. 12 , pp.327-338, 12p. Hirst, A., 2011. Settlers, vagrants and mutual indifference: unintended consequences of hot-desking. Journal of Organizational Change Management Vol. 24 Issue 6, pp.767-788, 22p. Holloway, I., 1997. Basic concepts for qualitative research. London: Blackwell Science Ltd. Huff, C., Sproull, L. and Kiesler, J., 1989. Computer communication and organizational commitment: Tracing the relationship in a city government. Applied Social Psychology Vol. 19, pp.21. Irwin, A., 1975. The Environment and Social behavior. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. John, A. and Antonio, L., 2011. Exploring Monitoring, Work Environment and Flexibility as Predictors of Job Satisfaction within Australian Call Centres. International Journal of Business and Management Vol. 6 Issue 8, pp.75-93, 19p. Julie, J.A., 2007. Human-Computer Interaction. In HCI 12th International Conference. Beijing, China, 2007. Springer. Kenneth, L.C., 2007. Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm. USA: Pearson Education Inc.. Kozlowski, S.W.J. and Bell, B.S., 2002. A typology of virtual teams. Group and Organization Management Vol. 27, pp. 14-49, 36p. Kupritz, V.W. and Terron, H., 2011. The Impact of the Physical Environment on Supervisory Communication Skills Transfer. Journal of Business Communication Vol. 48 Issue 2, pp.148-185, 38p,. Laschinger, H.K.S., 2004. Longitudinal analysis of the impact of workplace empowerment on work satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, pp.25,527-545p. Markus, C., 2006. Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Effort: A Reexamination Using Agency Theory. Journal of Marketing Vol. 70 Issue 1, pp.137-150, 14p. Michael, W.A., 2003. Effective Team Work (Third Edition). UK: Blackwell Publishing. Millward, L.J., 2007. Putting Employees in Their Place: The Impact of Hot Desking on Organizational and Team Identification. Organization Science Vol. 18 Issue 4, pp.p547-559, 13p. Mohan, S.F., 2011. Need Saliency and Management of Employee Motivation: Test of an Indigenous Model. The XIMB Journal of Management Vol. 7 Issue 3, pp.21-36, 16. Rene, T., 2008. Towards a Spatial Theory of Organizations. NRG Working Paper Series. Roberta, C., 2009. Spatial Spillovers and Regional Growth: A Cognitive Approach. European Planning Studies Vol. 17 Issue 5 , pp.639-658, 20p. Saunders et al, M., 2007. Research Methods for Business Students. Essex: Pearson Education. Scott, D., 2011. People, places and technology: A hybrid future. People Management, pp.32-35, 4p. Statistics, S., 2011. Fuller, Wayne. NJ: John Whiley and Sons, Inc. Tsai, C.Y., 2011. Using the Technology Acceptance Model to Analyse Ease of Use of a Mobile Communication System. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal Vol. 39 Issue 1, pp.65-69, 5p. Read More