Plant Biosecurity - Coursework Example

Plant Biosecurity Name Institution Introduction Biosecurity involves protecting the environment and people’s health from infections resulting from pests. It also includes preventing the emergence of new species of pests and managing the current species. This is through developing measures that will help prevent outbreaks of pests. Plant Biosecurity involves the various ways and mechanisms employed in protecting and managements of farm products from pests and diseases (Agrios, 2005). It involves the formulated strategies that are at assessing the risks of invasive pest species that damages biological materials on the farm. Therefore, the implementation of appropriate measures in protecting plants is essential in order to achieve high yields. Developing the right measures in controlling pests is determined by the ability to choose and implement the appropriate detection techniques and tools that will ensure early detection of pests (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). This helps in ensuring that plant crops are not affected by pests hence produce quality yields. Plant pests and diseases are caused by various factors including human factors and changes in the climatic conditions. Some factors increase the population of insects that cause damage to the plants or increase the susceptibility of the plant crops to attack by some diseases (Garrett et al., 2009). Climatic conditions such as changes in temperatures have negative effects on crop yields. This is because they favor the reproduction in insects and pathogens. Increased precipitation has also increased the population of invasive insects since it provides the suitable environment in which the pathogens can survive. Therefore, farmers need to device measure in combating these pests and diseases. Failure to control the pests will result into poor yields hence food insecurity. The plants will become weak due to attack by some pests while some plants will fail to develop to maturity since they are attacked by pests and diseases. This paper focuses on the various factors that have led to the increased pests and diseases that affect plant crops. The paper also discusses some of the effects of pests and diseases and the various mechanisms that farmers can adopt in order to increase their farm yields (Petzoldt & Seaman). Factors Contributing To Increased Pests There has been an increase in the emergence of new p species and increase in numbers of the existing species of pests (Garrett et al., 2009). This is due to factors that promote the reproduction of these pests or encourage their survival. Among the major causes of increased pests are climatic conditions (Petzoldt & Seaman). Temperature Changes in environmental temperature have varying effects on insects and pest population. Biological principles hold that increase in temperature above the optimum reduces the population of pests. However, research has demonstrated the increase in the pest population during temperature rise. Warmer temperatures especially in temperate climates have increased the pest populations (Petzoldt & Seaman). The increase in insect populations increases the chances of new species that may have devastating effects on plant crops. This means that the ranges of infectious insects will change and expand as well as the emergence of new invasive species due to changes in the climatic conditions. Rising temperatures alter the way the ecosystem responds to changes in climatic condition such that the changes cause new combination of species resulting in the emergence of new pests. According to Bale et al (2002), the temperature has various effects on the development and physiological processes in the insect. In fact, rising temperature affects the development, distribution, geographical range of the insect and the size of the insect population. Some insects have a long life cycle, which are by varying temperatures. During high temperature, such insect develops in a rapid manner increasing their population (Bale et al 2002). Therefore, an increase in temperature encourages the development of these insects, which means more possibilities of new infections or invasive species of insects. In addition, insects that spend most of their life in soils may be affected by changes in temperature. The soil acts as an insulating medium that act like a buffer to changes in temperature. This means that the mortality of such insects will reduce thus increasing the population size of invasive insects. Therefore, insects are likely to attack more plant crops in time of higher temperature due to increased latitudes and altitudes. This means that the diversity of these pests will rise as the temperature rise (Andrew & Hughes 2005). Precipitation changes The altered precipitation profiles have an effect on the population of insects that attack plant crops. There are contradicting literatures on the effects of precipitation on pests. Heavy brains will remove the insect from the surface of a plant crop hence minimizing the damage it was about to cause. In addition, some pests cannot survive in heavy rains, as they are too sensitive (Andrew & Hughes 2005). However, some insects especially the fungal insects thrive well in areas with high humidity. This provides suitable environments for such pests to reproduce and multiply. The increased multiplication results in high populations of invasive insects. When there is a lot of moisture, some pathogens are more active hence have the ability to infect more plant crops. In addition, longer precipitation periods are associated with increased population of insects since it provided favorable environmental conditions for the pathogens to reproduce and multiply. When there are higher, atmospheric water vapor there is the likelihood that the temperatures will be high hence favoring the development of some pathogens (Caton, 2006). Use of fertilizers Fertilizers have an effect on the pest population in that it destroys the predators that feed on the pests. Excessive use of fertilizers makes the pests become resistant. Pesticide resistance is due to the ability of some pesticides to cause mutation on the gene of insects. This will have a negative effect on the predators. Mutations in the genes of the insects will result to new species of insects that are pest resistant and have more destructive effects than the previous species. Predators that control the populations of the insects are affected by the fertilizers hence they reduce in numbers (Magarey et al., 2009). A reduction in the predator population results into population increase of the pests. This implies that more plant crops will be damaged by the high numbers of infectious insects. Pesticides kill the biological predators, which act as biological controllers of the insect populations. Therefore, the insects will be able to invade the plant crops with the absence of the biological control measures. On the other hand, chemical fertilizer does not integrate properly with the soil hence interfere with many biological insects that act as predators of the invasive insects (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). Carbon Dioxide Levels and Plant Pathogens The levels of carbon dioxide have various effects on the plant crop and the invasive insects. In plants, carbon dioxide levels are associated with higher growth of leaves and stems. These nourishing leaves encourage the formation of canopies that create a humid environment. The humid environment created by the canopies favors the survival of insects and pathogens that attack plant crops (Petzoldt & Seaman). In addition, higher levels of carbon dioxide increase the resistance of plants to pathogens. However, the efficacy of some pesticides and fungicides decreases with increased carbon dioxide levels hence make plants be more susceptible to attack by pests and diseases. High levels of carbon dioxide in plants results in increased sugar formation through photosynthesis. This sugar formation stimulates the feeding behaviors of some insects hence increasing their population (Musser & Shelton 2005). Monoculture and Plant Health Monoculture is the growing of a single species of plant on a piece of land. In this case, there is no plant diversity hence when pests are resistant they end up destroying the entire plant crop. Since they lack genetic diversity, the plants are susceptible to attack by pests and diseases (Petzoldt & Seaman). When pests feed on the monoculture crop, the farmer may be forced to use excessive fertilizer in combating the insects. However, excessive fertilizer encourages the development of resistance strains of insects, which are more invasive and destructive. In addition, excessive use of fertilizer leads to the development of new species that are to the environment. Therefore, monoculture plants have a lowered health status making them more susceptible to attack by pests and disease (Magarey et al., 2009). Prevention and Control of Pests and Diseases Integrated Pest Management (IPM) The integrated pest management encompasses a variety of pest control measures that can be adopted by the farmer in reducing the effects of plants pests and diseases (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). This approach includes cultural, chemical, genetic, biological, and legal measures in controlling pests and diseases in the farm. The integrated pest control management is regarded as the most effective approach in controlling pest and diseases since it minimizes the effects on human health and environments. However, the effectiveness of the integrated pest management approach depends on the ability of the farmer to understand the biology of the infecting pathogens (Magarey et al., 2009). The Use of Pesticides Pesticides are chemicals that are to kill, inhibit of inactivate the pests or insects that cause diseases to plant crops. They are sprayed on the plant so that they can have a direct effect on the insects. There are different categories of pesticides, which include herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and rodenticides. The effect of pesticides in preventing transmission is when they are used to kill, inactivate, or control the vectors that transmit various plant diseases. In most cases, vectors of plant diseases are insects hence controlling these insects will minimize the transmission of pests and disease (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). The toxicity of pesticides varies from one pesticide to another such that there are some pesticides, which are more toxic. This means that if not properly used, pesticides are able to cause more harm to the plants and human health that the desired effects. The major types of pesticide include organophosphates, biopesticides, and carbamates. Organophosphates: these care pesticides that destroy the nervous system of the vectors by preventing the transmission of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This means that they are able to kill the insects by interfering with their nervous system. If properly used these pesticides are able to prevent transmission of pests. However, the effects of these pesticides on insects are the same on human health. Therefore, if not carefully and properly used, these pesticides interfere with the human health (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). Biopesticides: biopesticides are natural products that are used to control pests and diseases in the farm. They are able to control the transmission of pests and diseases by destroying their vectors. However, the use of pesticide has to increase some of the insects hence increasing the risks of plant attack. Some insects have the ability to tolerate the pesticides hence develop resistance. These insects develop resistant genes that are able to resist the pesticides (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). This means that they will interbreed and produce new species that are more invasive than the old species of insects. In addition, excessive use of pesticides on the farm reduces crop yields since it affects the water retention capacity of the soil. Pesticides may also kill beneficial microorganisms in the soil that are essential in converting or synthesis of vital nutrients such as nitrogen, which is essential in plant growth. Pesticides have the same effects on human health hence if not properly used they may interfere with the harm health causing more health problems. Therefore, alternative methods are necessary that will ensure effective control of pesticides in order to minimize their effects on plant crops (Magarey et al., 2009). Cultural Practices in Controlling Pests These are practices, which aims at preventing the establishment of disease conditions in the farm. The farmers practice these methods in order to avoid the establishment of conditions that favor the breeding and reproduction of pests as well as transmission of these pathogens. In such cases, the cultural practices are dependent on the ability of the farmer to ensure good farm hygiene and cleanliness as well as practicing good farm husbandry (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). a) Crop rotation: this is the planting of different part crops on the same piece of land at different times of the year. The planting of different crops in sequences helps in controlling pests and reduces the survival rates of these pests. For example, a farmer may rotate potatoes and soybeans in different spots of the farm in order to disrupt the pest cycles in the farm. However, some rotated plants may also support the existing pests causing more harm to the crops (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). b) Practice in mixed farming: this is the growing of more than one type of crop on the same piece of land during the same season of the year. This reduces or slows spread of pests especially when resistant plants are planted together with the plants attacked by the pests. This means that farmers should be able to determine plants that offer resistance to pests and mix with those susceptible to attack by the same pests in order to reduce the effects of the pests (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). c) Planting resistant plats crops: there are plant crops that are resistant to pests and diseases hence are able to produce high yields despite an attack by pests and diseases. d) Others: these include planting of trees in the appropriate locations on the farm to reduce the spread of vector insects, watering the plants early in the morning to discourage breeding of insects, practice of mulching, controlling the plant or weeds that are by the attacking pests (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). Genetic control This is the use of resistant plants in controlling pests and diseases. This scientific approach involves the breeding of new plant species that are able to tolerate pests and disease. In this approach, the plant is modified to resist a certain pest but may remain susceptible to other pests and diseases (Bale et al., 2007). Biological control This is the use of biological mechanism in controlling pests and diseases. They include the use of other microorganism that feed on the weeds or attacking pests. It involves the use of biological control agents in controlling pests and diseases. The strategies used in biological control measures include the creation of an environment that will attract the harmful pests (Bigler et al., 2006). The harmful pests will gather in these environments and the natural enemies to these pests or insects are introduced to the environment, which feed on and kill the pests. In addition, the farmer may introduce a disease-causing microorganism that affects the pests but not the plants. This will help regulate or reduce the pest population. There are different types of biological control measures that a farmer may employ in controlling pests and diseases in the farm (Bale et al., 2007). a) Predators: The introductions of predators in the farm that attack the pests reduce the population of pests. For example in controlling aphid, a farmer may introduce the spotted Ladybird beetle that feed on aphids. b) Parasitoids: these are flies that lay eggs on the pest, which hatch and the young ones kill the pest host (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). Regulatory/Legal Control This is where the government and its agencies formulate rules that govern the farmers. It also involves the initiatives taken by the government and local authorities in preventing pests and diseases (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). These actions include inspection of the farms on a regular basis by the state official in order to identify pests. There is also the use of quarantine, which involves separating some livestock that are infected in order to reduce transmission of pests and diseases. In addition, the government may introduce compulsory farming practices that help in reducing the susceptibility of plants to insect attack. In addition to government initiatives, non-governmental organization including scientists and other stakeholders may come up with policies that help in the control of pest and diseases (Abrol & Shankar, 2012). Effects of pests Failure to control pests and diseases in the farm results into low farm yields. This means that the plants will be affected and become weak hence they will not be able to absorb enough nutrients. This will lead to the production of poor quality produce. Pests attach leaves and rooting system of the plant hence interferes with the normal water absorption of the plant crops (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). Continued attack of plant species by pest may lead to total, extinction of the plant species, hence loss of plant diversity. In the end, there will be no sufficient food supply and people will suffer from malnutrition diseases (Agrios, 2005). Therefore, in combating the effects of pest and diseases, various government agencies and stakeholder should come together in developing strategies in fighting farm pests and diseases. This is important since the government effort cannot fight pest alone. The cost of controlling pest and diseases cannot be met by the state budget hence its call for more collaboration with other stakeholders such as scientists developing new plant species that are resistant to pests. In addition, policy makers should strive to develop and implement new policies that are aimed at reducing plant pests. This will ensure the production of high quality farm yields (Peshin & Dhawan, 2009). Conclusion Plant Biosecurity involves the development of measure that best protect the crops in the farm from pest and diseases. The development of a good control measure lies in the ability of the farmer to identify the pest and diseases that attack the plant crops. Developing the bets detection methods and understanding the biology of pests is crucial in ensuring plants are growing healthily. The increase in pests and diseases is attributed to several factors such as climatic changes and human activities on the farm. The effects of rising temperature in the certain parts of the world and the increased effects of global warming have encouraged the development of pests and diseases. Some pests are in high temperatures and are able to reproduce and multiply. Rainfall affects the population of insects in that it provides a favorable environment for the insects to survive. Therefore, climatic changes in the world have been attributed to the increased pests and diseases. However, there are strategies and control measures that farmer may adopt in reducing the effects of pest and diseases. Among the best practices is the use of better farming practice, which discourages the breeding of insects. The farmer may also use biological and chemical control measure in reducing pests. Pest affects plant yields and increases the state budget in developing ways and policies in controlling pests. Therefore, to control pests and diseases, various policies by markers should unite and develop ways in which they will ensure sustainable farm produce through better ways of controlling pest and diseases. References Abrol, D., & Shankar, U. (2012). Integrated Pest Management: Principles and Practice. London: CABI Agrios, G. (2005). Plant Pathology. Boston: Elsevier Academic Press. Andrew, N., & Hughes, L. (2005). Diversity and assemblage structure of phytophagous Hemiptera along a latitudinal gradient: predicting the potential impacts of climate change. 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