The Role of Emerging Biotechnology - Coursework Example

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1 Nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………….1 How nanotechnology works in medicine……………………………………………1 Strengths and weaknesses of nanotechnology………………………………………2 Genome sequencing…………………………………………………………………4 How DNA sequencing works……………………………………………………….4 Strengths and weaknesses of genome sequencing……………………………..……5 Practical applications of genome sequencing……………………………….………6 Bio-fuels…………………………………………………………………………..…6 Strengths and weaknesses of bio-fuels…………………………………………..…..6 Application of bio-fuels………………………………………………………………7 Aquaculture…………………………………………………………………………..7 Strengths and weaknesses of aquaculture……………………………………………7 Stem cells……………………………………………………………………………..8 Strengths and weaknesses of stem cells……………………………………………....9 Introduction The term biotechnology refers to a field in applied biology whereby living organisms and bioprocesses are applied in fields that need bio-products such as technology medicine and engineering. There are various other technologies in which biotechnology is important. It is also applied in bio-fuels, aquaculture, nanotechnology, stem cells and genome sequencing. All these technologies are important upcoming alternatives which have great potential for transforming various biotechnology fields. This paper carries a discussion on these five about their mode of operation, their use in solving particular problems and their strengths and weaknesses Binnig, et al (1986). Nanotechnology Nanotechnology has to do with machines and services on a very small scale. The technology works in a different manner in each fiction and natural science discipline. Nanotechnology involves nanostructures and atoms Suh et al (2009). Biotechnology it is better applied in medicine for detection of diseases and treatment of problems such as cancer tumors. How nanotechnology works in medicine Nanotechnology can be applied in medicine and the possibilities being studied are the delivery of heat, drugs, light or any other substance to certain cells like those of cancer by nano-particles. Particles go through engineering so that they respond to attraction to diseased cells. In the process healthy cells are not damaged and the disease is detected early enough. Nanotechnology can also be used in delivery of drugs to the blood stream through the stomach so that oral administration or injection is completely avoided. Nano-shells can also be useful in concentrating heat coming from infra red light to for the destruction of cancer cells without much damage to the cells around Clarence (2007). When nano-particles are activated by x-rays they produce the electrons used in destroying cancer cells on which they are attached. Their use will be applied in place radiation therapy. In damaged joints, cartilage can be produced by the stimulation of nano fibers. Nano-particles can also be inhaled to stimulate the response of the immune system to attack respiratory viruses. Nano-particles from iron oxide are useful in improving the MRI images obtained from cancer tumors. The nano particle is given a peptide coating which binds to the tumor. After this the iron oxide magnetic property enhances the “image from the magnetic resonance imaging scan” Suh et al (2009). One early application of nanomedicine was the application of nanocrystalline silver an anti microbial agent in treating wounds. Nanoparticle creams fights staph infections since nanoparticles have nitric oxide that kills bacteria. Nanotechnology is also applicable in the repair of cells in the body Binnig, et al (1986). Strengths and weaknesses of nanotechnology Nanotechnology is the one that brought about the techniques of distorting silicon and plastic structures so the original form of the material is obtained. Before nanotechnology it was hard to distort silicon and aluminum so that they can be processed and reshaped to make chips for storage of information. The technology is also important in mimicking the functions of porphyrins which has good binding properties which are necessary for sensitizing and chemical bonding. Metal oxides are now being used as sensors. When metals receive treatment at nanoscale their capacity to carry electrons increases and therefore they can serve as chemical sensors Fritz Allhoff et al (2010). Nanotechnology is very important especially in medicinal practice in various ways such as drug delivery and cancer detection and treatment. In medical sciences nanotechnology creates instruments that leave behind no scars after major surgeries. It also allows for miniaturization of surgical instruments used in therapeutics and diagnosis. Nano fabrications introduced by nanotechnology have brought down the cost of important health equipment such as biosensors. Nanoly structured detection biosensors detect and show images that have been revolutionized very highly Binnig, et al (1986). Nanotechnology is a better technology especially when compared to the normal methods of medical treatment Clarence (2007). As away of example, nanotechnology when used in the treatment of cancer can yield better results. It is better than the normal treatment of chemotherapy since it helps in early detection of the cancerous cells. This detection in the pre-cancerous stage helps in early treatment using the nano-particles. The normal radiation therapy is designed to reduce the dose to the affected tissue but they can also cause damage to healthy tissue thus bringing about many side effects. These side effects can greatly be reduced by the use of nano-particles in cancer treatment Clarence (2007). In drug delivery nanotechnology works by manipulating super molecular structures and molecules for the production of devices that have programmed functions. Drug delivery by use of nano-particles provides a mechanism through which the challenges resulting from other systems of drug delivery can be overcome. Many systems of drug delivery have challenges such as solubility, in vivo stability, poor bioavailability, intestinal absorption, side effects, therapeutic effectiveness, targeted and sustained delivery to the place of action and the plasma changes of the drugs which could drop below minimum concentration that could be effective or surpass the therapeutic concentrations that could be safe Fritz Allhoff et al (2010). In delivery of drugs, nanotechnology has the capacity to counter these challenges because of the creation of nanostructures at nano scale and sub micron scale which happens to be majorly polymeric with many advantages. On general terms nanostructures posses the power to give protection to drugs that are encapsulated inside them form enzymatic and hydrolytic degradation within the gastro intestinal tract, aim at delivering various types of drugs to many body parts and for continued release and therefore can deliver drugs, genes and proteins via the peroral administration route Clarence (2007). They increase drug oral bioavailability because they have specialized mechanisms for up take like absorption endocytosis and can also remain within the circulatory system of blood for longer and hence release the drug incorporated into them in a manner that is sustained and continuous. This causes reduced plasma fluctuations hence lesser side effects coming form the drugs Binnig, et al (1986). Genome sequencing Genome sequencing is a process in which the order of the chemical building blocks making up the DNA in human chromosomes which are about 24 of them. Through this sequencing the 20,000 to 25, 000 human genes inside the DNA and the regions around them have been revealed. The DNA sequence maps obtained are then used by the scientists of the 21st century to study human biology and many other phenomena that are complex Becker, McCulloch, Till (1963). How DNA sequencing works The biotechnology field keeps changing. DNA sequencing depends on the ability of people to make use of gel electrophoresis to put apart DNA strands that are not of the same size. In the Sanger technique the DNA strand being analyzed serves as a template whereby DNA polymerase is used to produce complementary strands by use of primers in a PCR reaction. Four separate PCR reaction mixtures are made with each having a specific quantity of dideoxynucleoside triphosphate (ddNTP) analogs to any of the 4 nucleotides which are CTP, ATP, GTP AND TTP Coombs (2008). Raw DNA strand synthesis goes on until to the point of incorporation of one of the analogs and the strand is truncated prematurely. Every PCR reaction ends up with a mixture of various DNA strand lengths all of which end with the nucleotide which was dideoxy marked for the specific reaction. The strands from the 4 reactions are then separated using gel electrophoresis in four different lanes. It also determines the original template sequence depending on which strand lengths end with whichever nucleotide Borry, Stultiens, Nys, Cassiman, Dierickx (2006). In the automatic Sanger reaction the primers applied are marked with 4 fluorescent tags with different colors. PCR reactions with various dideoxy nucleotides being present are done in the above procedure. Next the 4 different reaction mixtures in combination are applied on one lane of the gel. The color on every fragment is seen by use of a laser beam and then the information is picked by computer that generates chromatograms that show peaks for every color from which determination of template DNA sequence is carried out. The automated method of sequencing can only be accurate when sequences reach a maximum length of 700-800 base pairs Ehrlich, Levin (2005). Nevertheless one can possibly get full sequences of bigger genes and even whole genomes by use of step wise methods like short gun sequencing and primer walking. With primer walking a considerable part of a big gene goes through sequencing by use of the Sanger method. New primers are made from a segment on the sequence that can be reliable and then they are used in the continued process of gene portion sequencing. In short gun sequencing the DNA segment that is required is cut into fragments of manageable size, each fragment is sequenced and the pieces are arranged on the basis of overlapping sequences. Computer software application makes this technique easier for the arrangement of overlapping pieces Fleischmann et al (1995). Strengths and weaknesses of genome sequencing In the final stages of the 20th century, atomic power has been harnessed by man and the power of genes has come shortly after. With genome sequencing diseases can be avoided through the detection of organisms which have a high possibility of having hereditary diseases. Through the implantation of genes it is possible to treat infectious diseases. Plants and animals can also be made to display the required characteristics. Manipulation of genes can also be done in trees so that more carbon dioxide can be absorbed to reduce global warming. Genetic engineering can also increase the diversity of genes Ehrlich, Levin (2005). Nature is a complex and interrelated chain with several species that have linkages within the food chain. There are scientists who argue that the introduction of genetically modified genes could have effects that are not reversible with consequences that are not known yet. Genetic engineering is controversial because of various issues of morality especially those of religion which is not in harmony with the desire of man to manipulate natural laws. Genetic engineering is among the most significant breakthroughs in the few past years Borry, Stultiens, Nys, Cassiman, Dierickx (2006). Practical application of genome sequencing At the Roslin Institute in Scotland there was a successful attempt by scientists to clone a sheep. They produced an exact copy of it and named it ‘Dolly’. Before this there had been no such cloning done anywhere and therefore it was the first time to have to organisms with identical genes existing. The genetic sequence of a rat was also manipulated successfully by scientists so that a human ear could grow on its back Coombs (2008). Bio-fuels A bio-fuel can simply be defined as a fuel which does not contribute to the amount of carbon dioxide within the atmosphere. It is obtained from organisms that have not been fossilized or from their by products. Biodiesel for example may be obtained from animal fats and vegetable oils. Horse and cattle manure is a bio-fuel obtained form living organisms. The mode of operation of bio-fuels may not be different from other types of fuels. They are used taken through a combustion process to produce energy just like the other types of fuels Hammerschlag (2006). Strengths and weaknesses of bio-fuels Compared to fossil fuels, bio-fuels bring about great environmental gains. They have the capacity to lower toxin levels in water and air. They lower the possibility of global warming and also reduce the needs for fuel through the provision of more efficient energy creation modes. Bio-fuels do not produce excess carbon dioxide like fossil fuels. When burnt they give an equal amount of carbon dioxide just like the one that the source plant had taken in while growing. Bio-fuels are therefore carbon neutral Demirbas, (2009). Biofuels come from organic materials that are biodegradable. The level of toxicity of the fuels is low. For example when an oil spill takes place in the ocean a fossil fuel causes a lot of water pollution and destroys aquatic life. If the spill is caused by a biofuel, then it would not cause much worry. The costs of bio-fuels are lower compared to fossil fuels and their energy production is also sustainable. This is important since the supplies of gas and oil are dwindling hence high prices for the fuels Demirbas, (2009). Bio-fuels are easy to make locally at home by farming groups and local communities. These give the communities economic and social strength. Two main bio-fuels used widely are bio-ethanol and biodiesel and they have the power to run various motor vehicle model. When compared to fossil fuels biodiesel as a form of bio-fuel is biodegradable, is not toxic, is renewable and has a high flash point and has a small likelihood of burning in an accident. Biodiesel can easily be used in all vehicle types since it lowers the amount of vibrations, noise and the smoke produced Caye (2008). Bio-fuels are renewable since the crops from which the fuel is made are cultivated every year. Fossil fuels such as natural gas or oil need so many years of formation Hammerschlag (2006). When bio-fuels burn they are cleaner compared to fossil fuels and their level of toxicity is lower. According to a British government report released in 2009 showed that the carbon emissions from bio-fuels are 50-60% lower when compared to petroleum. The content of sulfur in the bio-fuels is also lower and the sulfur content produced from the bio-fuels is 100% lower than petroleum. However the process of producing bio-fuels results in subtle carbon emissions. The energy taken for growth, harvesting, processing and transportation of the bio-fuels ultimately lowers the benefit created by lower emissions. Bio-fuels remain cleaner than oil even when all these carbon emissions have been considered Demirbas, (2009). Bio-fuels can provide energy security since only a few countries of the world produce oil. Those countries that have no oil can harness bio-fuel energy to guarantee the supply of energy to their citizens. On the negative side bio-fuels have brought about a debate on the importance of food and energy production Caye (2008). When foods are used for the production of energy then the amount of staple food available is reduced meaning the prices will go up. However biofuels can still be made from byproducts of plants and non essential foods such as sugar cane and beets. There is another concern that when bio-fuels crops are produced on a large scale then biodiversity can be undermined and pests and diseases can take advantage of that. Production of bio-fuels also puts pressure on water. Plants that produce ethanol consume three or four gallons of water for the production of a gallon of fuel Caye (2008). Bio-fuel application A practical application of bio-fuels can be found in a case where carbon connections supported collaboration between Clean Energy Consultancy, University of East Anglia, Norfolk County Council and Riello limited in which they wanted to demonstrate the possibility of using blends of bio-fuels in order to directly replace oil and kerosene in heating systems in the UK Demirbas, (2009). The oil heating industry which is represented by the ‘Oil Firing Technical Association’ has supported a project which will bring about a transition of renewable oil to the market place. The project collaborates with Argent energy Ltd from Scotland to supply the market with disease that are been made from cooking oil that has already been used. Riello Ltd was the host of the first trials inside their Huntington laboratories with UEA evaluating the major biofuel blend properties Demirbas, (2009). Aquaculture A qua-culture is otherwise called a qua-farming and it refers to the farming of water organisms like crustaceans, fish, aquatic plants and mollusks. In aquaculture salt and fresh water populations are cultivated in controlled conditions. This technology can be compared to commercial fishing in which wild fish are harvested. Aquaculture can be done particularly in shrimp farming, alga-culture, oyster farming, fish farming and ornamental fish farming. There is also plant and fish farming which is called aqua-ponics Birt, Rodwell, & Richards (2009). Strengths and weaknesses Since fish demand is growing at a high rate the wild fish can no longer satisfy this demand. Aquaculture helps in raising production to meet the available demand. Aquaculture plays a big role in the economies of many places. Apart from increasing the production of fish aquaculture also contributes to social benefits. It has also created many employment opportunities. The job market available for the harvesting of wild fish has stagnated or is slowly decreasing in many areas. This technology has the potential of recruiting the populations that have been thrown out of work and those who are jobless Birt, Rodwell & Richards (2009). Aquaculture also takes care of the needs of different people’s diets. Increased production is causing a reduction in the prices of fish. Aquaculture has many social and environmental benefits which commercial fishing does not have. Aquaculture is not as harmful to the ecosystem as wild fishing. Methods such as trawling in the ocean cause a lot of damage to the substrate of the ocean and may kill species that were not the original target. In aquaculture there is great minimization in these kinds of risks Gunawardena1 Rowan, (2005).  The demand for fish has increased and aquaculture as an alternative technology has its concerns too. The impact that infrastructure and aquaculture facilities have creates a negative effect on local plants and animals. Effluents produced on aquaculture farms with dangerous chemicals such as those from antifouling products and therapeutics which can result in distress to the local ecosystem Hepburn (2002). Organisms escaping from the farm have impacts as well. Exotic species being used in aquaculture creates another importance because they result in certain risks like introduced forms of life which come with them. These are the microorganisms and algae or new agents of pathogens which can get to new environments Gunawardena1, Rowan, (2005).  Food sources for fish being cultivated which comprises of fish oil and fish mill are things to be considered because the products are manufactured from tiny pelagic fishes that may not be having sustainable origins and hence they put more pressure on available fish. The development of aquaculture in a sustainable manner is a big issue Hepburn (2002). Aquaculture also poses the problem of high costs of production. Fish farming on a very big scale relies on technology and therefore farmers need to have costly equipment to satisfy the demands of the industry and the government Hepburn (2002). Water pollution is another problem since heavy metal like mercury can accumulate in fish and therefore become a health hazard to people consuming the fish. Fish farming needs approximately a million gallons for every acre. Technologies for purification of water may do the recycling of local water in an area that is confined but the effective removal of the pollutants and the management of fish farms becomes really complex Birt, Rodwell & Richards (2009). As opposed to aquaculture, the wild fish in the lakes and oceans may not need much expense and also they not be prone to much pollution of heavy metals especially in waters that are far from industrial towns or agricultural lands. Since fish farming economizes on space, there might be high incidence of infection and disease because of congestion. Fish farms have fish clustered in a way that cannot be possible in open waters. This congestion is motivated by the desire to have high yields on small space Gunawardena1, Rowan, (2005).  Stem cells The technology of stem cells in the United States aims at producing, expanding, and differentiating multipotent stem cells. Stem cells can be found in all organisms that have multiple cells. They undergo mitosis as a way of cell division and they form various types of stem cells. They form both adult and embryonic stem cells in the process of differentiation. When they rae present in mature organisms they are responsible for the repair of the body. Within the body of an embryo that is still developing the stem cells differentiates into specialized cells and also keeps the required regenerative organ turn over. These organs are the intestinal tissues and the blood Barrilleaux, Phinney, Prockop, O'Connor (2006). The growing of stem cells in the present days is possible in artificial ways and then transformed into types of cells that are specialized and have characteristics that are in consistency with other cells found in certain tissues like nerves and muscle via cell culture. Adult stem cells that are highly plastic are normally applicable in medicinal therapy. Sources of stem cells are many and they include the blood of the umbilical cord and the bone marrow Adewumi, Aflatoonian, Ahrlund-Richter L, et al. (2007). Many researchers in stem cells say that embryonic stem cells are the ones preferred in places where therapies based on cells are being carried out. Although they are normally versatile when compared to the adult stem cells there are other sources like the stem cells in the umbilical cords are also versatile. Those properties that cause versatility in the stem cells also render them unusable in therapy. Unless the cells are differentiated totally before being used in the body of a patient, the cells travel around the body causing tumors. There have been experiments done on rats and mice and all of them have proven that spontaneous formation of tumors is a problem that persists Barrilleaux, Phinney, Prockop, O'Connor (2006). It has also been a big problem to maintain and grow “embryonic stem cell lines” since some lines have ended in mutations thus becoming useless. The biggest problem is in the incompatibility of tissues. So many lines need to be made so that they can serve a considerable percentage of patients. Although the stem cells from the patient can be used deals with the mutation, tumorogenesis and incompatibility of tissues it is hard to patent these individual therapies and the pharmaceutical companies lack the drive to go after these therapies. Contrarily, it is also possible to patent ‘embryonic stem cell lines.’ Since so many lines would be needed to serve every tissue type in patients then pharmaceutical companies would require a lot of money for every patented line that they can produce Gunawardena1, Rowan, (2005).  Strengths and weaknesses of stem cell research Stem cell research is important since it has medical benefits especially in regenerative medicine and therapeutic cloning. It has a big possibility of the discovery of remedies to diseases like diabetes, injuries in the spinal cord, Alzheimer’s disease, Cancer, schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Just from the stem cells it is possible to grow organs and limbs inside a lab so that the same can be used in disease treatment or transplants Barrilleaux, Phinney, Prockop, O'Connor (2006). Stem cell technology in medicine has various strengths and weaknesses and a considerable number of them have been discussed in this paper. Stem cell knowledge makes it possible for doctors and scientists to study the development of cells and human growth. Human or animal testers will no longer be used in testing the many drugs being developed. Through stem cell research then the effects brought by aging are reduced. On the other hand, stem cells may not be available in plenty although the adult stem cells come form the bone marrow. The adult stems cells have a short life of storage meaning they cannot be kept for long in cultures. There is also a difficulty in harvesting because the procedure is a difficult one Barrilleaux, Phinney, Prockop, O'Connor (2006). Embryonic stem cells are not easy to control and a lot of effort and patience is needed for scientists to derive from them the right cell line. For embryonic stem cells to be obtained then embryos of between 5 and 7 days have to be destroyed against the moral concerns raised by the public. Immunogenic reaction risks exist because stem cells obtained form a random donor of the embryo can be rejected after transplantation. The cells may also result in the formation of tumors or cancer Gimble, Katz, Bunnell (2007). In conclusion biotechnology is important in various ways. Many technologies such as the ones described in this paper provide suitable alternatives to the ordinarily used technologies which tend to be more harmful to man or the environment or even costly. It is important therefore for these technologies to be studied further and developed upon in order to bring greater gains in the biotechnology field and to consolidate the ones that have been realized. Technologies such as bio-fuels have great potential in reducing global warming, nanotechnology will go far to improve the medical practice while aquaculture can bring a lot of environmental benefits and food supply as opposed to catching of wild fish. New technology in biotechnology has great potential and since more research into these technologies is underway, a lot is expected in the near future. References Suh WH, Suslick KS, Stucky GD, Suh YH (2009). "Nanotechnology, nanotoxicology, and neuroscience". Progress in Neurobiology 87 (3): 133–70. 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Creating a Stem Cell Donor: A Case Study in Reproductive Genetics Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal - Volume 14, Number 1, March 2004, pp. 81-96 The Johns Hopkins University Press Read More