Exploring the Brain Responses - Assignment Example

Exploring the Brain Responses Aim The aim of these two experimental studies is to show that the brain responds differently to a treatment of the conditions set. Introduction This is a cellular biology study of the brain through some experiments. The experiment carried out will show how our behavior and the environment affect our brain. The two experiments are done on the human and rat using an inducement of rTMS and stimulants respectively. The experimental study has the hypothesis of the inducement of either the rTMS or the stimulants triggering the dopamine production. In the two experiments, the brain is induced with rTMS for patients with depression and stimulants for the c-Fos experiment, which uses rats. Procedure outline of rTMS Eight Patients with depression were treated with rTMS, over the left prefrontal cortex on a daily basis. Each of them underwent a neuropsychological test scores and PET scan before and after the rTMS treatment (Goldman et al. 1978). Procedure outline of c-Fos experiment Six rats were injected with cocaine and six with amphetamine. The rats were then killed, and the brain extracted. The brain was then preserved and treated with antibodies that recognize the c-Fos positive cells. A special dye was then added to reveal the location of the c-Fos cells. The cells are counted easily since they are brown due to the dye. Q1a. The independent variable (IV), the conditions and the two dependent variables (DV) for this study First, the rTMS experiment will be considered. The independent variable (IV) is the raclopride binding. This does not rely on the other variable, but it is rather depended on by the other variable. The conditions of the experiment rTMS are repetitive Trancranial Magnetic stimulation. There are four dependent variables that depend on the set conditions, which are R caudate, Lcaudate, R putamen, and L putamen. These will vary depending on the rTMS induced on the patient. In the second experiment (c-Fos), the Independent variable is c-positive cells, which are not necessarily dependant on the other variable set. The conditions are cocaine and the amphetamine. The independent variables are the nucleus accumbens from the sections of the rat’s brain (Goldman et al. 1978). Q1b. The study within a participant study explanation The study of rTMS involves the participation of several patients who are observed before and after the rTMS induction. A PET scanning is then done to establish the amount of functional dopamine receptors using radioactive raclopride. The study is thus within a participant study where the data obtain is from the patient pairs under experiment. The participants involved are patients who are 8 rather than being a single patient. Since 2 pairs of participants had the same pre-rTMS test scores represented by a single point for each pair, the study is within a participant study. The c-Fos experiment study is also within a participant study. This is because the study experiment involved participation of every group member. This means that obtaining the data of all the group members was essential. Q1c. The vital piece of statistical information missing from the study results obtained The essential piece of statistical information missing from the results presented here is a hypothesis. This is a vital tool in analyzing the data presented to either agree with the data or disagree. This tool would be critical in making conclusions, like establishing the level of deviation from the expected results set on the hypothesis. This piece of information set as a hypothesis would act as the researchers’ guideline when they are setting the procedures. This tool is also helpful to a researcher in the field since it will define his research scope. Q1d. Description of the data shown in figure 1 and discussion of rTMS moderate antidepressant effects From the figure, the rTMS seems to have the moderate antidepressant effects since the Raclopride binding post-rTMS is a bit higher than the raclopride binding before the r-TMS. The graph has moderately steep slope, and thus indicates that the change in depression is average upon rTMS being induced on the patient. This clearly shows that the rTMS inducement on the patients has a moderate antidepressant effects. Q1e. Discussion of the data obtained, and evidence to support that rTMS has an effect on the dopamine system. It is evidently clear that the data obtained shows rTMS to have a significant impact on these patients. The rTMS has vital effects on the neurotransmitter brain systems known as dopaminergic system. The dopamine prevents the re-uptake of dopamine into the presynaptic terminal. This rTMS promotes the production of dopamine from the presynaptic terminal. The dopaminergic terminals are mainly the striatum and the nucleus accumbens, while the source regions giving rise to these innervations are the substania nigra and the ventral. There is a clear evidence that rTMS has the impact of either increasing or decreasing the levels of functional dopamine receptors, which binds to dopamine receptors. Q2. Essay discussing the nervous system mechanisms used to guide axonal growth and the survival of neurons. In this essay, the importance of various mechanisms used by the nervous system will be defined. These mechanisms will be elaborated in their guide of axonal formation and development. The mechanisms will be illustrated in the development of the nervous system. The essay will also include a discussion of the experimental evidence and the key discoveries in this field (Goldman et al. 1978). The formation of the nervous system is a complex process, in which determinants operate in an instructive fashion. This helps to direct the differentiation and survival of neurons, and to induce outgrowth of axonal, leading to a terminal branching of the tissue in target. Here, I can report that rats generate alerting mutants of the hepatocyte growth factor, which is abbreviated as (HGF) receptor. The Met tyrosine kinase shows a distinguishing sensory nerves decreasing. In this way, the skin of the limbs and thorax will undergo innervating, implicating the hepatocyte growth factor or Met system in sensory neuron formation and growth (The Open University 2012). By use of the in vitro assays, it is observable that HGF collaborate with the nerve growth factor abbreviated as NGF. In this method, HGT enhances outgrowth of the axonal emerging from the cultured dorsal root ganglion, which is abbreviated as (DRG) neurons. HGF is also an enhancer of the neurotrophic NGF processing activities in vitro. Met receptor alerting is vital for the life of a portion of DRG neurons in vivo. This synergism is particular for NGF, unlike for the interrelated neurotrophins, which are BDNF and NT3. Using a moderate alerting mutant of Met, it is easy to demonstrate that Met will not function without the alerting. The interface molecule (Grb2) can accomplish the alerting by inducing myoblasts proliferation. The distinction comes from the HGF actions on sensory neurons as determined by effectors of Met, which are much different from Grb2. My results show a need for Met alerting in neurons as it forms and grow. This formation and growth of neurons inside the peripheral nervous system abbreviated as (PNS) is a bit complex. Still, high-rated stereotyped method that has its control in sections by outside cues from the other cells. The first cue is the considerations needed to control the proliferation and draw a distinction of the different neuronal precursor cells. The second is considerations that enhance outgrowth of axonal and lead axons to their destinations. The third cue is considerations for the survival that match the neurons number to their destination. The last is the common signs refining start of connections by controlling terminal branching and synaptogenesis (Goldman et al. 1978). In the study of independent functions, HGF is a target. I have concentrated on the formation and the growth of sensory neurons, which innervate the limbs and thorax skin. This is different from the motor neurons, which have protrusions uninfluenced by muscle cells cues. At this point, I can guess I was successful in demonstrating that rats contain an alerting mutant of Met, given the notation metD/D. The rats have intercostals nerves with a reduced length and elaborate number of terminal branches, showing a need for HGF/Met alerting in the formation and growth of sensory axonal. By incorporating in vitro assays, it becomes clear that HGF works together with nerve growth factor (NGF) in producing the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) axonal growth of sensory neurons. HGF catalyzes the activities of the neurotrophic NGF in vitro. The Met receptor alerting is needed for the portion of DRG neuro. HGF-induced Met alerting impacts on the formation and development of axons. Using the untamed DRG neurons, I learned the impact of HGF as a factor and also a group of neuritogenic factors. Examples of these nearitogenic factors are: NGF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and neurotrophin. These are the factors that have been proved to promote excessive formation and development of the neurite from DRG axonal. Even though HGF on its own seems not to promote an extreme formation and development on the cultured DRG explants enhances NGF-catalyst neurite overdevelopment. HGF presence, together with the NGF, gave a result of advanced form and developed neurite bundles. The neurite bundles induced with NGF without the HGF were shorter than those with HGF. Grouping of these digital data images showed an increase in three quantities. The mass per volume of the neurite in NGF combined with HGF treatment of the DRGs had a clear relation with NGF-treated explants. The maximum point of these effects was reached (Saturation) and was within the ranges 10 and 20 ng/ml of HGF. Q3. (a) An abstract of tutor group c-Fos experiment. The c-Fos experiment has its basis on study in France. It was set to test the hypothesis that amphetamine and cocaine operate in different areas of the brain. Two Pyschostimulants (Cocaine and amphetamine), which are common drugs of abuse were used. Both of them have vital effects on one of the neurotransmitter brain systems known as dopaminergic system. The cocaine prevents the reuptake of dopamine into the presynaptic terminal. Amphetamine, on the other hand, promotes the production of dopamine from the presynaptic terminal. Initially, it was assumed that amphetamine and cocaine operate in the same areas of the brain. Two Pyschostimulants (Cocaine and amphetamine) are the conditions set for the inducement of the brain. The experiment show the process involved when immunohistochemistry is used in answering the functioning of the brain. Immunohistochemistry is the method of determining whether certain molecules are present in the neurons. The dopaminergic terminals are mainly the striatum and the nucleus accumbens, while the source regions giving rise to these innervations are the substania nigra and the ventral tegmental area. It was performed on rats and gave results of series of brain slides microscopic slides. The mean and standard deviation were then found to analyze the response of the brain to the two stimulants. The summary of the mean and standard deviation was presented in a table. Q3b. (i) Aim of the experiment The experiment will show the process involved when immunohistochemistry is used in answering the functioning of the brain. (ii) Introduction The experiment will be used in answering the functioning of the brain. It was performed on rats and gave results of series of brain slices microscopic slides. The experiment is brief and will cover the vital part of the c-Fos experiment. It was performed on rats and gave results of series of brain slices microscopic slides. The experiment is brief and will cover the vital part of the c-Fos experiment. The experiment, therefore, may not give a detailed indication of what will be done or the preparation needed. The first task is to generate some data using these slides. The second task will be to analyze the data generated and lastly interpret the results of the analysis. From this analysis, I will comment on their outcomes. Various techniques are used to investigate the brain. Part of these techniques employs staining of the species to enhance their visibility structures, cells or molecules when viewed through the microscope. Procedure outline of c-Fos experiment Six rats were injected with cocaine and six with amphetamine. The rats were then killed, and the brain extracted. The brain was then preserved and treated with antibodies that recognize the c-Fos positive cells. A special dye is then added to reveal the location of the c-Fos cells. The cells are brown due to the dye, which makes it possible to count them. Experimental hypothesis of Tutor group Cells that respond to cocaine and amphetamine are in different parts of the brain. Null hypothesis The response of cocaine differs with that of amphetamine. The independent and dependent variables The Independent variable is c-positive cells, which are not necessarily dependant on the other variable set. The conditions are cocaine and the amphetamine. The independent variables are the nucleus accumbens from the sections of the rat’s brain (The Open University 2012). Q3 c (i) A summary table of results presentation of group investigation. 1. Amphetamine Rat Number Nucleus Accumbens Mean number of c-Fos positive cells of amphetamine Mean number of c-Fos positive cells of cocaine Mean Deviation (X-M)^2 of amphetamine Mean Deviation (X-M)^2 of cocaine 1 Slide 1 7 5 0.16 0.14 2 Slide 1 6 4 0.96 0.83 3 Slide 1 9 6 0.56 0.34 4 Slide 1 10 8 0.76 0.65 The results of the t-test Rat Number Nucleus Accumbens Mean number of c-Fos positive cells of amphetamine Mean number of c-Fos positive cells of cocaine Mean Deviation (X-M)^2 of amphetamine Mean Deviation (X-M)^2 of cocaine 1 Slide 1 7 5 0.15 0.13 2 Slide 1 6 4 0.97 0.84 3 Slide 1 9 6 0.57 0.35 4 Slide 1 10 8 0.77 0.66 Q3c (ii) Comments on the results obtained including the results of a t-test comparing the conditions and the P-state obtained. The Amphetamine showed an increase in the positive c-Fos level, in the rat’s cells. In the cocaine, there was no much increase in the positive c-Fos cells. It is clear that each of the different stimulant drugs induced a given pattern of c-fos. Amphetamine induced a unique pattern of c-fos. This pattern differs by far from that of cocaine induction. Comparing this with the T-test results shows a small difference. The results clearly show that the cocaine and amphetamine response level differs with the different cells in the four brain sections. Q3d. (i) Discussion of the group results obtained. The nucleus accumbens section of a rat’s brain segment was stained for the experiment, for a clear definition of the species. The microscope magnification of 100 and 200 times was used to enhance the visibility of the species. This way, it could reveal the c-Fos cells being investigated. To test the hypothesis, we counted the p-Fos positive cells in a rat injected with cocaine and another injected with amphetamine. The data summary is an average from the 4 sections with an additional average data. It was, therefore, possible to determine the mean and the standard deviation from this data. (ii) Relation of group findings to the original hypothesis. The results of the group are in line with the original hypothesis since the rats showed a different increase in positive c-Fos cells of cocaine inducement from that of amphetamine. (iii) Comments about any inadequacies and inaccuracies of the design or problems with the procedure. The experiment procedure is brief, though it covers the vital part of the c-Fos experiment. Thus, the experiment may not give sufficient data for the test of the hypothesis set. The experiment also lacks a detailed indication of what will be of the steps involved. It is worth noting that the procedure was not viable for determining whether certain molecules are present in the neurons (The Open University 2012). (iv) Comments about the brain areas you considered in your experiment and what that responsiveness means in relation to dopamine. The test was done on the four sections of the rat’s brain. The slides represent the section of the brain known as the nucleus accumbens. The slides were induced with the stimulant drugs, cocaine and amphetamine. Both drugs were to give vital effects on one of the neurotransmitter brain systems known as dopaminergic system. The cocaine prevents the reuptake of dopamine into the presynaptic terminal. Amphetamine, on the other hand, promotes the production of dopamine from the presynaptic terminal. Thus, the two have different effects on the dopamine in their responsiveness. (v) Their responsiveness to amphetamine and cocaine. The Amphetamine showed an increase in the positive c-Fos level, in the rat’s cells. In the cocaine, there was no much increase in the positive c-Fos cells. It is clear that each of the different stimulant drugs induced a given pattern of c-fos. Amphetamine induced a unique pattern of c-fos. This pattern differs by far from that of cocaine induction. From these results the hypothesis is: The response of nucleus accumbens to cocaine is different from response to amphetamine (Blogg 1998). Conclusion The two experiments of the study were successful in answering the questions set. They helped in explaining what is involved when immunohistochemistry is used to answer questions about the brain functioning. References Blogg, AB 1998, An Encyclopedia of the Brain (CD-ROM), Microbiology Press, Oxford. Goldman, JE, Schaumburg, HH & Norton WT 1978, Isolation and Characterization of Glial Filaments from Human Brain, The journal of cell biology, vol. 78, pp. 426-440. The Open University 2012, Biological psychology: exploring the brain, The Open University, London. 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