Homo Erectus and Its Sub-species - Research Paper Example

Homo Erectus Total Number of Words: 3,021 Table of Contents I. Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 4 II. Historical Overview behind Homo Erectus and its Sub-species ….. 4 a. Australopithecines or Australopithecus …………………. 4 a.1 Australopithecus Africanus …………………………… 5 a.2 Paranthropus Robustus ………………………………. 5 a.3 Australopithecus Anamensis ………………………… 6 b. Shift from Australopithecus to Early Homo Species …. 6 b.1 Homo Rudolfensis ……………………………………. 7 b.2 Homo Habilis ………………………………………….. 7 b.3 Homo Ergaster and Homo Erectus …………………. 8 III. The First Discovery and Exact Location where the First Homo Erectus was Found …………………………………………..... 9 IV. Classification or Characteristics of Homo Erectus ………………… 10 V. Changing Ideas and Thoughts on the Different Places where Homo Erectus Evolved ………………………………………………… 11 VI. Current Ideas behind the Morphology or the Physical Form of Homo Erectus …………………………………………………………… 11 VII. Behavioral Patterns of Homo Erectus and Ways in which They have Successfully Adapted with Climatic Changes, Physical, and Social Environment …………………………………………………………….. 12 VIII. Discussion ………………………………………………………………. 13 IX. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 15 Figure I – Australopithecines or Australopithecus …………………………. 16 Figure II – Australopithecus Africanus ………………………………………. 16 Figure III – Australopithecus Africanus (left) and Parathropus Robustus (right) …………………………………. 17 Figure IV – Historical Overview of Human Origin ………………………….. 17 Figure V – Homo Rudolfensis ……………………………………………….. 18 Figure VI – Homo Habilis ……………………………………………………. 18 Figure VII – Homo Ergaster from East Africa and Homo Erectus from Southeast Asia ………………………………………………… 19 Figure VIII – Important Homo Erectus Sites …………………………..…... 20 References …………………………………………………………………… 21 - 25 Introduction The origin of human being or the human evolution is believed to gone through several stages known as the Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens – our species also known as the modern man. (Howells; ONeil) Aiming to strengthen the study behind the human origin, anthropologists have gathered and are continuously studying the fossil remains of different hominid that have existed in the past. (Stanford University) The purpose of this study is to investigate and discuss the historical overview behind the existence of the homo erectus species and its sub-species. In the process of going through the historical facts about homo erectus, the student will discuss the following: (1) the first discovery behind homo erectus; (2) exact location where the first homo erectus was found; (3) the classification or characteristics of homo erectus that makes them different from other species; and (4) the changing ideas and thoughts about the different places where homo erectus had evolved. Eventually, the student will describe the current ideas behind the morphology or the physical form of homo erectus followed by their behavioral patterns. Prior to conclusion, the student will thoroughly explain how homo erectus adapted with climatic changes as well as the physical and social environment. Historical Overview behind Homo Erectus and its Sub-species Australopithecines or Australopithecus Roughly between 4.2 to 1.5 million years ago (BBC News), the earliest human origin that was discovered by anthopologists are the australopithecines or the australopithecus is the species that belongs to the great Southern apes because of the fact that their brain has the size of those that belongs to the chimpanzees or roughly 400 cc with matching huge skull and teeth structures because of the possibility that they eat hard plant materials. (Cartage; Falk; Steen; Washington State University b). (See Figure I – Australopithecines or Australopithecus on page 16) Australopithecus Africanus As early as 1924, Raymond Dart – an Australian Anatomy professor discovered a fossil skull of a ‘Taung child’ which he eventually named as Australopithecus africanus. (Armstrong; Berger and Clarke; McKee; Washington State University d) Between the years 1920s – 1940s, a lot of paleoanthropologists did not agree with Dart’s conclusion that the species of Australopithecus africanus is an intermediate between the apes and humans since most of them believe that the skull of the so-called Australopithecus africanus closely resembles that of an ape. (Cartage; Falk, Redmond and Gruyer) Aside from having a skull shaped-like apes, australopithecus africanus also have a chimp-like feet structure. (Washington State University c) (See Figure II – Australopithecus Africanus on page 16) Paranthropus Robustus Eventually, a new species called Paranthropus robustus which was characterised by its sagittal crest that extends from the frontal top to the back of the skull with a relatively larger jaws and teeth was first discovered by Dr. Robert Broom – a Scottish paleontologist back in June 1938 when he first found a fragment of its maxillary bone that contains molar as well as some mandibular fragments and incomplete cranium. Basically, it is the paranthropus that serves as a link between the modern human species and the Southern apes or the Australopithecus. (Cartage) (See Figure III – Australopithecus Africanus and Parathropus Robustus on page 17) Australopithecus Anamensis In 1965, Bryan Patterson discovered the first distal humerus of an Australopithecus anamensis at Kanapoi in Northern Kenya which he estimated to age between 4.5 to 4.0 million years ago. (Patterson, Behrensmeyer and Sill; Schuster; Ward, Leakey and Walker) Eventually, Meave Leakey also discovered the other fossil remains of Australopithecus anamensis at Allia Bay in East Africa and Kanapoi in Northern Kenya back in 1994. (Ward, Leakey and Walker) Shift from Australopithecus to Early Homo Species Over time, there was a shift from the species of Australopithecus to the species of homo or the ‘true humans’ because of the gradual increase in the size of the endocasts or the brain cases as well as the increase in the cranial capacity of the Australopithecus species which eventually developed into a more closer physical features between the paranthropus and the early homo species. (Cartage; Falk, Redmond and Guyer) (See Figure IV – Historical Overview of Human Origin on page 17) There are many sub-species under the genus homo. This includes the homo rudolfensis, homo habilis, homo ergaster, and homo erectus. (Cartage; Wood) Among the four major sub-species of the genus homo, homo habilis is considered the oldest and first human species which existed around 2.2 – 1.6 million years ago in East Africa. (Washington State University) Homo Rudolfensis Discovered by the team of Richard Leakey at the east of Lake Turkana of Koobi Fora in Northern Kenya back in 1972 was an almost complete cranium that has no teeth known as the homo rudolfensis. (Kreger b; Wood) The main characteristic of homo rudolfensis is its larger size of the brain at 775 cc as compared to the species of Australopithecus with a brain size of 400 cc. (Cartage; Falk; Steen; Washington State University b; Wood) (See Figure V – Homo Rudolfensis on page 18) Homo Habilis In 1960, Louis Leakey, John Napier, and Phillip Tobias discovered a species of OH 7 in Oldavai Gorge, Tanzania. (Wood) With brain size ranging between 590 – 710 cc, the team of Leakey called the OH 7 species as the homo habilis – ‘Handy man’ as suggested by Raymond Dart four years later since there were evidence found that the homo habilis were already producing stone flake back in 2.34 million years ago. (Kreger; Roche et al., Delagnes and Brugal; Rushton and Rushton) One of the most visible differences between the homo habilis and Australopithecus is the size of the brain wherein the brain or skull of homo habilis as compared with Australopithecus africanus is approximately 30% bigger. (Washington State University a) (See Figure VI – Homo Habilis on page 18) Homo Ergaster and Homo Erectus Roughly 1.8 million years ago, the early stage of human transition was referred by paleoanthropologists as homo erectus which eventually was broken down into sub-species known as homo ergaster and the homo erectus because of the slight difference between the physical characteristics of the two species. (ONeil; Wood) Homo ergaster was first discovered by C. Groves and V. Mazak back in 1975 when they located the first isolated mandible labeled the ER 992. (Kreger c) Homo egaster has been considered as the closest sample that has the most similar features with the homo erectus except that homo ergaster reveals no presence of sulcus or depression at the back of the browridge and has a relatively thinner skull bones as compared to homo erectus. (Smithsonian Institution) Because of the close resemblance between the African homo ergaster and Eurasian homo erectus (Heslip), homo ergaster is sometimes called as ‘the early homo erectus from Africa’. (Kreger c) In general, homo ergaster is characterised for having a rounded cranium as well as a prominent browridge with a smaller size of teeth as compared with Australopithecus species. (Smithsonian Institution) (See Figure VII – Homo Ergaster from East Africa and Homo Erectus from Southeast Asia on page 19) Back in 1887, a Dutch anatomist known as Eugene Dubois began searching for more human fossils in the island of Sumatra and eventually decided to move closer to the eastern part of Java where he first recovered the brain cases and femur – the upper leg bone of a homo erectus which he first called the Pithecanthropus erectus back between the years 1891 – 1892. (ONeil) During 1930s, a German-Dutch paleontologist known as Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald discovered the remains of homo erectus in Dutch East Indies and eventually in different places in China. (Vos) Discovery made by von Koenigswald served as a confirmation that the species of homo erectus really existed in the past. The First Discovery and Exact Location where the First Homo Erectus was Found Based on the historical records on the study of human fossil, homo erectus was first discovered in East of Africa roughly 2 million years ago (Stanford University; Steen) in the sense that the homo ergaster which has the closest physical resemblance with homo erectus was believed to have originated from Africa and eventually imigrated to Asia which gave rise to the formation of the homo erectus roughly 1.7 million years ago (BBC News). After having discovered the oldest human-like fossil of homo erectus in Eastern part of Africa, the same species were discovered in different places in China particularly in Lantian, Zhoukoudian, and Hexian; Europe particularly in Dmanisi and Atapuerca; in Java island specifically in Modjokerto, Sangiran, Trinil, and Ngandong; including the different places in Africa such as the East Turkana, West Turkana, Olduvai Gorge, Bouri, Swartkrans, Ternifine, and Salè. (ONeil) (See Figure VIII – Important Homo Erectus Sites on page 20) Classification or Characteristics of Homo Erectus Among the major differences between the Australopithecus and the family of homo erectus are concentrated on their physical attribues and cultural practices. The physical characteristics of homo erectus is very close to a modern men in the sense that homo erectus, as compared with homo habilis, is approximately 50% much larger brain size which normally ranges between 900 – 1,200 cc. (Western State University f) Unlike in the physical attributes of Australopithecus, this group of species had a brain size of only 440 cc. (Cartage; Falk; Rushton and Rushton; Steen; Washington State University b) Similar to homo ergaster, homo erectus is also characterised with a rounded cranium which is necessary to cover the increasing size of the brain. (Smithsonian Institution; Washington State University g) The only difference between homo ergaster and homo erectus is the fact that homo erectus has sulcus or depression at the back of the browridge with a thicker skull bones as compared to the homo ergaster. (Smithsonian Institution) Aside from having a similar brain structure with the modern men, homo erectus are also known for their ability to hunt using tools like sharp-edged hand-axes and create fire. (ONeil; Washington State University h) Because of they capability to act like the modern men such as having the idea of developing their own tools through the use of stones and their ability to walk on an upright position, a lot of anthropologists believed that homo erectus are also capable of socially interacting with one another. (Washington State University i) Changing Ideas and Thoughts on the Different Places where Homo Erectus Evolved Even though a lot of anthropologists and researchers believe that homo erectus evolved from Africa and immigrated to the different parts of the Asian countries (O’Neil; Stanford University; Steen), there are still some researchers who believed that the ancestors of the homo erectus evolved first in different parts of the Asian countries prior to Africa because of some physical evidences with regards to the documented time frame wherein the hominid fossils were found in each country (White, Berhane and Degusta et al.). Aside from the possible differences with regards to the documented estimated time in which each of the hominid fossils were identified (White, Berhane and Degusta et al.), the debate on the main origin where homo erectus had first evolved was also partially triggered by the fact that there is a possibility that homo erectus is not really related with the homo ergaster at all. In this case, it will much safer to conclude that homo erectus existed first in Asian countries due to the fact that many of the homo erectus fossils were found in Asian countries. Current Ideas behind the Morphology or the Physical Form of Homo Erectus The physical characteristics of homo erectus remained the same until roughly 800,000 – 700,000 years ago. (ONeil) Homo erectus also physically looks like the modern humans in the sense that they also have the same proportional arms and leg bones like what we have. However, their leg bones are much denser as compared to our bones which suggest that homo erectus physically move around by walking or running. Among the major physical distinction of the homo erectus is the shape of their skull which suggest that they had stronger muscles at the back of their neck with a relatively shallow forehead that slopes backward from the bony brow ridges. Homo erectus also had a more elongated brain case making their frontol and temporal lobes narrower and less dense which caused them to have a much lower I.Q. than most modern humans have. In most cases, the adult homo erectus had only between 750 – 1250 cm3 or an average of 970 cm3 (ONeil; Rushton and Rushton) as compared to the modern humans with the brain size between 1,200 – 1,500 cm3 (Raven and Johnson, p. 443; Stringer and Gamble; Vilee and Claude). Behavioral Patterns of Homo Erectus and Ways in which They have Successfully Adapted with Climatic Changes, Physical, and Social Environment Similar to the perception of other researchers with regards to the ability of homo erectus individuals to create fire (ONeil; Washington State University h), John Gowlett – a professor at the University of Liverpool stated that a lot of researchers have considered the evidence of burnt artefacts back between 790,000 – 690,000 years ago was made by either homo ergaster or homo erectus (Rincon). The capability of homo erectus to start fire and use tools like sharp-edged hand-axes, this group of species are capable of easily adapting with environmental changes specifically from Africa to other tropical and subtropical places around the world. Eventually, some of the homo erectus population moved to different places in Asia and Europe that has cold climate and temperature. (ONeil; Washington State University g) Using their a sharp edged hand-axes, homo erectus are considered to be the first human beings to have exploited the natural environment through ways of hunting small animals and plants for food purposes. (Washington State University g) It was also possible for homo erectus to have socialized during night time by lighting a camp fire. Discussion The easiest way to explain the enlargement of the skull fossil and the physical differences of the Australopithecine species with the genus homo species is by looking at the eating habit as well as the physical, cultural, and social activities of each identified species. Basically, diet plays a crucial role in the development of a larger brain because of the vitamin and mineral content available in each type of food groups. On the other hand, the physical activities of each identified species also enabled the paleontologist to easily determine the possible causes of their physical characteristics. For example: Aside from the fact that skull or the size of the brain of homo erectus failed to reach the brain size of modern men, the major body parts of the homo erectus species has a very close resemblance with the modern men except for the high density of their bones. Bascially, the high density of their bones only suggest that they were prone to walking and/or running due to the absence of transportation which we are enjoying today. Based on the research study that was conducted by Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp, the fossil remains of Australopithecus africanus revealed that the said species that lives in South Africa does not only consumer fruits and leaves but also a large portion of carbon-13 enriched foods like animals that regularly consumed grasses and sedges. For this reason, a lot of archeologists, paleontologists, and other researcher believe that there is a huge possibility that diet of Australopithecines which shifted from hunting to meat-eating has something to do with the larger brains that most homo erectus had. (Pennisi; Rincon) Since there were no traces of hunting tools and/or the documentation that the Australophithecines or the Australophithecus speciies were capable of starting a fire, there is a huge possibility that this group of individuals were relying much on fruits and vegetables or other hard plant materials as their main sources of nutrients. For the reason that they were not taking in enough protein-rich foods which can be easily found in meat, it is possible that the development of their brain did not reach its full potential. For this reason, the size of their brain grew only up to 400 cc. Even though the brain size of the first genus homo species known as homo habilis was only between 590 – 710 cc (Kreger; Roche et al., Delagnes and Brugal; Rushton and Rushton), the fact that evidences were gather proving that homo habilis were able to produce and use stone flake around 2.34 million years ago (Roche et al.) has a huge impact over the skill development of the homo ergaster and homo erectus. The species of homo ergaster and homo erectus were the ones that were known for their hunting skills using some man-made weapons and their ability to start fire contributed a lot to the major improvements in their diet. Not only did it made them able to consume reach protein foods from animal meat causing their brain attributes to fully develop but also enabled them to migrate to different places around the world that has cold temperature. Conclusion By studying the physical and chemical characteristics of fossil or human bone remains, it is possible for paleontologist and/or to easily determine and identify the main origin of human beings. Not only does the bone characteristic of fossil remains tell us about the lifestyle of each human species but also the means of livelihood as well as the physical and social environment they had in the past. In most cases, a research study is being conducted for each located fossil remains. Based on the research findings, researchers would normally develop a theoretical analysis in relation to the geographical regions where each species were commonly found, the lifestyle each species may have experienced in the past, including their diet which significantly contributes to their physical growth. Having a hominid species time-line enables us to clearly understand the progress behind the human evolution. By closely examining the hominid species time-line which was presented under figure IV of the study, the homo erectus or homo ergaster is considered the closest ancestor of the modern men next to the homo sapiens. Since homo erectus evolved much later than the homo habilis, the physical characteristics of homo habilis which resembled some parts of the Australopithecus species were much less evident in the case of homo erectus. Figure I – Australopithecines or Australopithecus Source: Washington State University, 2008 Figure II – Australopithecus Africanus Source: Washington Post University, 2008c Figure III – Australopithecus Africanus (left) and Parathropus Robustus (right) Source: Cartage, 2008 Figure IV – Historical Overview of Human Origin Source: Washington State University, 2008e Figure V – Homo Rudolfensis Source: Kreger, 2008 Figure VI – Homo Habilis Source: Kreger, 2008b Figure VII – Homo Ergaster from East Africa and Homo Erectus from Southeast Asia ER 992 Source: Kreger, 2008c; Smithsonian Institution, 2008 Homo Erectus from Southeast Asia Homo Ergaster from East Africa Source: O’Neil, 2008 Figure VIII – Important Homo Erectus Sites Source: Palomar College, 2008 References: Armstrong, Sue. "Taung Child Fell from the Sky." New Scientist Magazine 9 September 1995: 7. "BBC News." 26 April 2000. Near Complete Ape-man Skull Found. 10 July 2008 . "BBC News." 11 May 2000. 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