Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episode Memory - Assignment Example

Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episode Memory Back in the year 1975, Craik and Tulving came up with the idea that words that were processed more deeply, ought to have memory traces that were strong, making them easier to recall. Similar to the many memory studies that have been carried out, there were phases to the experiments, study and test. In the exploration of the levels in which there was the processing framework for research on human memory, there were ten experiments that were designed by Lockhart and Craik. The obvious ideas tend to assume that the memory traces that are episodic ought to be thought of as an operation of automatic by-product, which is carried out by the cognitive system. The one for the durability trace tends to be a positive function of the depth of processing, whereby in such a case, depth is used in the implying of greater degrees of sematic involvement (Bernstein 54). There was induction of subjects in order to process the words to the wanted different depths which came by as a result of answering the provided questions about the words. For instance, the asking of questions about type-script resulted to shallow encodings being achieved, while questions about rhymes resulted to intermediate levels of encoding being achieved. Questions as to whether certain words would fit in a particular sentence frame or what would be a given category resulted to deep levels being induced. On an unexpected note, the subjects were later on given a recognition or recall test for the words. This was after the encoding phase was completed. It took longer for deeper encodings to finally conclude, and they were very much associated with very high performance levels on what was the subsequent memory test. In another bit, the questions that resulted to positive responses came to be associated with retention levels that were much high, when compared to the questions that led to negative responses, in this case at deeper levels of encoding (Guido 43). This pattern of effects prompted further experiments to be carried out, to find out in much greater details. It was established that, what was seen to be the original results, did not only reflect the encoding times said to be different. An experiment was set up, where a work piece that was complex and shallow took so much longer to carry out, but at the very end, yielded what was termed to be lower levels of recognition than that task which was seen to be easier and deeper. Other studies show cased reasons why the retention of words that is said to be superior, was seen to be in association with responses that were positive in the initial task. There was remembrance of the responses that were negative as well as responses which were positive, and as such, the questions asked were leading to an elaborate encoding that was just where the two cases were concerned. The finding of the results in the typical pattern under the conditions of learning which were intentional, gave a great boost to the idea that the spread of encoding was seen to provide a better description, and in a case where each of the words was exposed for up to six seconds in the initial phase. Whereas elaboration and spread would indeed be viewed as descriptive, which would be better in regard to the findings made, retention is seen to be critically depending on the nature of the encoding that is qualitative in the operations that had been performed. In this particular case study, a semantic analysis that is minimal is seen to benefit more than the extensive structural analysis. Performance of the memory is much enhanced to the much far extent, whereby, the questions that encode or the context, are in a way seen to form a unit that is integrated with the words presented. A similar encoding is seen to yield more superior performance of the memory, as a trace which is more elaborate is put down (Rocker and Martina 12). This is however brought to complication by the findings, which put out that the different operations carried out in encoding are optimal for the different retrieval conditions. On top of that, the differences that are seen to be large in recall under the operations of encoding have gone through observation, where in any way, the subject’s task in any manner does not bring about interim associations of organizations or establishment. Thus, the results that are displayed, are seen to take us way beyond the processes of organizations and associates, which would be considered as the determinants that are important where both retention and learning are included. It might come out that it is in other ways, that the orienting task, automatically leads to organization as the result of Hyde and Jenkins suggestions. Amazingly, it becomes possible for the entertaining of the hypothesis that indicates what is the optimal processing of words, which are said to be individual. Various experiments are said to have been carried out in order to yield some insights to the nature of learning that occurs in the operations themselves (Sun 14). The theory of classical learning has not been so much concerned with the processes and what we would call changes within the system, but instead, has to a great extent looked much into the situation of the experiment, manipulations of the material or effects that come about with the learning of the result. Currently then, we know much more about the effects of meaningfulness, various instructions of learning, word frequency and presentation rate. However, we have very little knowledge of the nature and the characteristics the mental events which underlie and accompany them. Most of the experiments and theories are analysis of what would be the effects that come about with the various operations of encoding, and tend to give away the promise of intentional learning (Dehn 34). There were also other experiments carried out, that were aimed at gaining further insights into the processes believed to be involved in good performance. The experiments which were initial had been put up to come up with as much evidence as possible, for what they were terming as the depth in the processing of the view of memory which had been outlined by Craik and Lockhart back in the year 1972. A proposal by the two authors indicated that in a useful manner, the traces of memory could in other words be termed as perpetual processing by-product. In a similar manner, that perception in other instances, may have been to have been composed in analyses that ought to have been aligned in a series, the preceding that is from the early sensory processing to the operations of semantic associative which are later on, and the memory trace resulting, may be more or less elaborate and this depends much on the nature of the analysis on the basis of quality and number which are termed as perpetual, that are seen to be carried out on what is the stimulus. In a much discussed portion, it was put forward that the durability of the memory ought to be one of the functions of depth of processing. The meaning of this is that stimuli, which in most cases do not receive the attention that is required and are only analyzed to a level that is shallow, are seen to give rise to the memory traces that are transient. On the other side, the stimuli that is fully attended to, fully analyzed and also has been enriched with images or the associations, tends to yield a deeper encoding of the event and a long lasting trace (Wolvin and Carolyn 37). The formulation of Craik and Lockhart tends to provide one framework that is possible in accommodating results from learning studies that are incidental and that are cited above. The advantage of paying attention to the process, that is seen to lie below the formation of trace and on the importance of encoding operations, is found in the results. In another bit, since the traces of memory come out clear as not residing in the supposedly several stores, the depth in the processing approach is seen to eliminate the chances, that seek the necessity to put down to document, the capacity of stores which are postulated; where there is the coding of the characteristics of each store that are then defined, or where there is a mechanism that is put to character whereby an item tends to be moved from one particular store to another. Though all this advantages tend to imerge, the point of view of the two (Craik and Lockhart) is seen to have some obvious shortcomings. If at all nothing much than what would be the remembrance of meaningful events is said by the levels of processing framework, then all this in simple terms would be termed as a mere collection of ideas that are of different kind, only that they have been put in a different kind of setting. To add on to this, the position that has been created may more than likely represent a backward step in the research and study of human memory. This will be so because the idea will not be at all explaining the particular details in a manner that is clear. If at all it is clear on our behalf that precisely memory traces can be presented in a kind of a formula, then statements that are seen to be confusing such as “deeper processing yields and traces that are more durable” are very much behind us then (Moscovitch, Evan and Philip 24). Also, tending to be more serious can be termed as the very least required by the level’s position is some index of depth which is independent. Here, there are obvious dangers of circularity present, which is brought about by the fact that any event that tends to be vividly remembered is in an easy way labeled as deeply processed. Criticisms of such kind can be countered partially. First, arguments that are cogent can be marshaled to be advantageous in getting to work with what would be termed as a theory, which is rather general given that the said theory has what bit takes in the coming up with predictions, which are distinguishable from what other theories have. Onward from this point that is with no doubts true and general, and which in a different perspective is seen to be the point from where to start, the various abstracts in the light of experimental results can be defined with what the theoretical framework has suggested. Taking this sense to consideration, encouragement resulting from the levels of processing various points of viewing the types of questions, may be capable of yielding insights which are new (Davies 75). The results that are emerging from these studies tend to have an importance which is being seen as great, where the generation of theoretical implications is concerned. While commencing, continuous learning operations which are demonstrated intentionally and incidentally, are seen to take place in the material, with no intentions of learning as it was thought before. The position of postman is thus collaborated by this, regarding the essential similarity on the case of incidental and intentional learning, though the work that is recent is much more, and usually described as similar processes rather than similar responses. Also, it is clear that the attention to the meaning of the word is a necessary phase of good retention. It could also be said that since the conditions of retrieval are held constant typically in those experiments, the differences that come about in retention, do reflect the effects that are brought about by the different operations while encoding (Yudofsky and Robert 15). A graph elaborating the results So far, it has since been established that in the tracing of an event, much can be collected in different kinds of environments of retrieval cues, but the same information in another environment can tend to be difficult to retrieve (Yudofsky and Robert 15). Works Cited Bernstein, Douglas. Essentials of Psychology. California: Wadsworth Pub Co., 2010. Print. Davies, Graham. Memory in Everyday Life. New York: John Wiley, 1993. Print. Dehn, Milton. Long-term Memory Problems in Children and Adolescents: Assessment, Intervention, and Effective Instruction. Hoboken: Wiley, 2010. Print. Guido, Gianluigi. The Salience of Marketing Stimuli: An Incongruity-Salience Hypothesis on Consumer Awareness. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001. Print. Moscovitch, Morris, Evan, Thompson, and Philip Zelazo. The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print. Rocker, Carsten, and Martina Ziefle. Smart Healthcare Applications and Services: Developments and Practices. Pennsylvania: IGI Global, 2011. Print. Sun, Miao-Kun. New Research in Cognitive Sciences. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2007. Print. Wolvin, Andrew, and Carolyn Coakley. Perspectives on Listening. Norwood: Ablex Pub., 1993. Print. Yudofsky, Stuart, and Robert Hales. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub., 2007. Print. Read More