Cognitive Development - Assignment Example

Cognitive Development Part Comparison Theories of learning - Behaviourism and Constructivism: Child development is a significant phenomenon resulting in biological as well as psychological changes occurring in human beings during the period from birth till the end of adolescence. The process of development involves cognitive, emotional and environmental influences on the child. These developmental processes are considered as important part of the learning processes of the child. Further, learning includes acquiring, enhancing or changing one’s knowledge, skills, values and world views. B. F. Skinner’s (1905-90) learning theory assumes that “development is a result of learning experiences that are continuous and lifelong” (Hendry and Kloep, 2002, p. 11). So to say, there are different theories of learning that focus on what happens when the learning takes place. Behaviourism is an important theory of learning primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. The theory supports three basic assumptions that, a) learning is featured by change in behaviour, b) environment influences behaviour, and c) contiguity and reinforcement are relevant in explaining the learning process. In behaviourism, any physical action including acting, thinking, or feeling, is regarded as a behaviour. New behaviour can be acquired through the process of learning by means of two types of conditioning - classical and operant. In the former, behaviour becomes a reflex response to stimulus whereas in the latter conditioning, behaviour operates on the environment resulting in a reward (increases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring) or punishment (decreases the likelihood of the behaviour recurring). Constructivism is another significant theory of learning that views learning as a process of constructing or building new ideas or concepts based on current and past knowledge or experience. That is to say, Constructivism assumes that learning involves the construction of one’s own knowledge based on one’s own experiences. As construction of knowledge is an individual activity, constructivist learning process introduces individuals to a wide variety of concepts and ideas to explore within a given framework or structure. It includes active learning, discovery learning as well as knowledge building - all elements leading to self-directed learning where the teachers encourage students to learn on the basis of various experiences and situations. Remarkably, the aspects of conditioning relevant in Behaviourism are not so relevant in Constructivism. In fact, the similarities as well as differences between these two theories of learning are apparently explainable. Similarities: Both Behaviourism and Constructivism require active involvement and communication from the learners as well as the teachers. These further motivate learners to improve their approaches in learning. Both theories of learning feature several characteristics and stages of thinking. That is to say, children progress through various stages as they mature and learn to think. As the stages pass, children’s learning proceeds from concrete to abstract type with the development of their maturity level. Both Behaviourism and Constructivism are considered as relevant approaches to maximise classroom organisation as well as discipline among students. Besides, the theories are equally applicable in Web-based instruction. Both theories discuss the structuring and presentation of teaching materials. Behaviourism and Constructivism commonly address the role of the learner in the educational system. Both learning theories emphasise on the methods and strategies that the teachers use to make students learn. Differences: Behaviourism focuses on behavioural changes of learners whereas Constructivism focuses on their ability to problem solve in different situations based on individual experiences and schema. In Behaviourism, learners are taught behaviours by reinforcement through drill and practice. Whereas in Constructivism, learners are taught to actively construct their own knowledge. In other words, Behaviourism argues that students are passive learners. Whereas Constructivism supports that students are active learners. In Behaviourism, learning is primarily based on drill and practice while Constructivism emphasises on situated learning where children can learn from their own experiences. In Behaviourism, learning instructions focus on conditioning the learner’s behaviour. But in Constructivism, the focus is on promoting the mental construction of the learner’s reality. In Behaviourism, the instructor uses selective reinforcement to teach learners while in Constructivism, the instructor uses the learner’s conceptual modelling for teaching. In Behaviourism, the learner’s realities are convergent, that is, various realities agree on one common reality. But in Constructivism, the learner’s realities are divergent where the learner is encouraged to develop different realities. It is now observed evidently from the points mentioned above that Behaviourism and Constructivism have their similarities as well as differences in terms of the learning processes and strategies of children. It is clear that both theories of learning are significant in the educational system. The primary objective of these learning theories is to define how a student learns by explaining the nature of learning as well as the properties and nature of knowledge. With the learning processes defined this way, the learning theories are used to teach students in traditional classroom setting as well as in computer-based instruction. Apart from their similarities and differences, it is important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of Behaviourism and Constructivism in order to apply these theories in various educational setup. A problem with Behaviourist learning theory is that the student is taught in a clear set of stimulus and response. In case of a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, the student cannot respond as he or she does not understand the system. However, the strength of the theory lies in the fact that the student is focused on a clear goal which means his or her response will be automatic to the cues of that goal. With regard to Constructivism, its divergent thinking process can cause problems in a situation where conformity is essential. However, this divergent thinking is important for the learner. Because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, it is relevant that he or she is better equipped to deal with various real life situations. In case of problem solving, the learner can better apply his or her existing knowledge to a new situation, or even modify that knowledge to cope with the new situation. Part 2: Evaluation Influence of Behaviourism and Constructivism on early year’s practice: In Behaviourism, students are taught to learn their behavioural changes by means of conditioning of stimulus and responses. By means of classical conditioning, the stimulus-response association can be carefully controlled in order to teach children the correct behaviours (Keenan and Evans, 2009, p. 30). As Skinner’s operant conditioning theory argues, the likelihood of a child’s behaviour recurring can be increased or decreased with the use of rewards or reinforcers and punishments respectively. As Hurlock discusses the relevance of rewards and ‘good’ punishments (1997, p. 397-400), they have an educational value significant for children to learn ‘socially approved behaviour’. Rewards are different in types when it comes to educating younger and older children. In case of younger children, the use of nonverbal forms of communication is an essential part of the rewards. Parents often reward young children for their socially approved behaviour by offering a friendly smile or a warm hug. Gifts are also given as rewards for good behaviour. Such communication forms are very effective in case of younger children. Whereas older children value words of praise as social recognition for their positive behaviour. This includes comments from parents like “You cleaned up your room very well. I could not do a better job than you did.” Good punishments have direct relationship to the act of disapproval. Such punishments do not abuse or humiliate the child, but teach him clearly why society will not tolerate certain patterns of behaviour. For instance, if a child throws food on the floor in a fit of temper, the child must be made to clean it up immediately. When the punishment is over, parents (or the punisher) can build a favourable relationship with the child by explaining him how his behaviour can be recognized socially. With regard to Constructivism, one of the most common early year practices is role play. Cathy Arnold (2003) states in her case study on Harry that the nurseries in England provide each child with a ‘creative area’ full of art materials for him to use. Quite interestingly, children show their creativity through those materials. For instance, Harry expressed his creativity through “drawing, painting, model making, construction, small world play, imaginative and role play, having ideas, solving problems and making up games.” (Arnold, 2003, p. 113) Role play involves the child more realistically in solving problems or handling new situations effectively. Dowling (2005) argues that parents and teachers should provide young children with activities and opportunities that encourage them to share and take turns (p. 38). For example, children are to be provided ‘treasure boxes’ that contain props and dressing-up clothes so that the young learners can experience different types of role play. Different role play settings can reflect different lifestyles. Typical examples of role play given to children are the roles of the baby or the dog. However, the communicative behaviour of such children is often too timid or over-effusive. The variation in role play depends on the socio-cultural structure (Magnusson, 1996, p. 368), that is, common patterns of social pressures and social expectations apart from individual household environment. Explicit role assignments (for example, “Let’s be ship captains now”) are also significant in the cognitive development of children (Oates and Grayson, 2004, p. 244). Thus, Constructivism teaches learners to generate their own ‘rules’ and ‘mental models’ in order to make sense of their own experiences. References: 1. Arnold, C., 2003. Observing Harry: Child Development and Learning 0-5. Berkshire: McGraw-Hill. 1. Dowling, M., 2005. Young Children’s Personal, Social and Emotional Development. 2nd edition. London: Sage. 1. Hendry, L. B. and Kloep, M., 2002. Lifespan Development: Resources, Challenges and Risks. London: Thomson. 1. Hurlock, E. B., 1997. Child Development. 6th edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. 1. Keenan, T. and Evans, S., 2009. An Introduction to Child Development. 2nd edition. London: Sage. 1. Magnusson, D. (ed.), 1996. The Lifespan Development of Individuals: Behavioural, Neurobiological, and Psychosocial Perspectives. A Synthesis. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1. Oates, J. and Grayson, A., 2004. Cognitive and Language Development in Children. Oxford: Blackwell. Read More