PTSD and Neurology - Term Paper Example

? PSTD and neurology: A Review PSTD and neurology As it is well understood from various research articles and forums, child trauma has profound impact on the social, cognitive, behavioral and emotional well-being of the children in contention. The organizational and functional status of a developed brain is mainly determined from childhood with the developmental experiences acting as the core determinants of what the individual stands for. This shows that any traumatic effects will have a resounding impact on the way an individual reacts to their surroundings and especially the way they relate to their surroundings. This is because the brain is forced to create some adaptive mental and physical responses which may include hyper-arousal and dissociation. Consequently, given the fact that the brain internalizes and processes new information based on a use-dependent fashion, the possibility of the child developing neuropsychiatric symptoms following the trauma increase (Bailey, Moran and Pederson, 2007). Attachment here is defined as the emotional bond that is formed freely amongst objects in order to create a sense of security as well as safety. Trauma refers to the condition that an individual experiences. This may be a cluster of severe negative effects which may be a resultant of stressful events and may change how one behaves towards certain events (Bailey, Moran and Pederson, 2007). They may also lead to psychological disorders such as anxiety and posttraumatic stress. Attachment trauma is a result of physical, sexual and psychological abuse and emotional and physical neglect that are associated with relationships. Given the fact that the brain acts as a mediator in all emotional, cognitive, social and behavioral functioning (Healing resources.info, n.d.), this report will look at the impact of posttraumatic stress and its impact on the individual’s behavioral, neurological and relational attributes in life. The aspect of attachment will also be tackled. Studies on Adults with PSTD Statistics show that at least 7-8% of people in the US alone are likely to experience PSTD in their lifetime and the prevalence getting higher for those in combat and rape victims (Bailey, Moran and Pederson, 2007). Ethnically, the prevalence has been found to get higher amongst the African Americans, Hispanics and the Native Americans compared to their Caucasian counterparts. Medics contend that the reasons for this difference are due to the perceived dissociation that takes place soon before and after the event takes place (Lamont, 2010). These people in the minority group tend to blame themselves for the occurrence and have fewer support mechanisms that would help them recuperate. It is also said that women are twice likely to suffer from the PSTD symptoms compared to men. Children form the bulk of the statistics with at least 487,276 victims of abuse and/or neglect aged 7 and under being reported. 83% of these were maltreated by a primary caretaker or parent and almost half of them report abuse within five years after the study was last conducted in 2006 (Bailey, Moran and Pederson, 2007). The brain, at birth, is the central command section of the body and has a plasticity that enables the brain to create new neural circuitry throughout one’s existence. Brain imaging resources such as electroencephalogram (EEG) and positron emission tomography (PET) show that the brain has greater abilities that allow it to create new structures and functions throughout life and doe so as a result of experiences that one undergoes (Lamont, 2010). As people grow, these memories form the basis of their functioning and how they adapt to the different stimuli in their surrounding environments. Adults suffering from PSTD form quite a good study group on how traumatic events in their childhood can affect their relationship as well as their daily livelihood. As binder et al. (2008) stipulates, other than trauma exposure, there are other factors that may play a great role in the development of PSTD amongst the adults. Genes and environmental factors are contributory factors that many have neglected to explore as a basis for understanding the source of the trauma in childhood and how adults cope later on in life. The authors set to investigate how adults responded to previous trauma and how they may be assisted using the study of their gene and the interaction with the environment. They set up a cross-sectional study that sought to examine the psychological and genetic risk factors in 900 non-psychiatric clinic patients who had significant levels of childhood abuse combined with those who had non-child abuse trauma using a verbally presented survey combined with single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. They choose their participants from low-income earning area with African American men and women forming the crux of the participants. It is reported that those in the lower earning brackets face major hurdles in their early childhood and this result to this selection by the authors. They were elected from an obstetric-gynecology clinic in an urban public hospital. The main variables that were tested in this research included the effects of childhood abuse and non-childhood abuse on adult PSTD symptomatology. Further, the FKPB5 SNPs would be investigated to check on their role in the development of PSTD amongst adults and whether trauma predicted the level of PSTD. It is said that the continued rise in childhood abuse increases risk for impairments in the physical and psychological health and may lead to reduced adaptive functioning as an adult. The brain works through perceptions. The attachment that a child has with the caregiver and those around contribute significantly to this (Springer et al., 2007). Any sensory behavior that takes place within an individual emanates from what they observe and is enhanced through interaction with both the environment and with different stimuli. Genes offer a chance for hereditary attributes to play a role in enhancing these perceptions. It leads to vulnerability later on when an individual seeks to form any attachments with their social surroundings and biological mal-development process in cases of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) (Gilbert et al., 2009). The measures they used included the modified PSTD symptom scale with a 17-item self-report scale; clinician administered PSTD scale; the Beck depression inventory; traumatic events inventory, child trauma questionnaire; the Dexamethasone suppression test; DNA extraction and; SNP genotyping (binder et al., 2008). When SNP genotyping was correlated with child abuse interaction, the researchers found out that there was a great correlation between the two with a Pearson correlation of 0.271. This was noted even with controlled age, sex, non-child abuse trauma levels and the severity of depressive symptoms. It means that each can independently predict the level of adult PSTD symptomatology. It goes to show that children who have been abused have a high probability of getting PSTD in adulthood because research showed that trauma induced the levels of FKBP5 mRNA expression in the blood cells and could lead to PTD almost 4 months immediately after the trauma occurs. With such results, it is easy to conclude that trauma in childhood leads to PSTD in adulthood with psychological and biological functioning being greatly affected. However, it would be important if the study would include the age when the maltreatment took place and the severity of the abuse. In the present case, the participants only answer questions regarding how they view their childhood. If the questions would identify the ages and the result of the PSTD research conducted on such basis, the study would have created a better understanding as to the effect of age on the way each adult reacts to attachment later in life. The issue of age and sex were controlled herein and research with these as variables would yield further aspects of the trauma-experience and the effects on adult depression status. Research has shown that the path between the genotype of the early trauma and the phenotype of the adult malfunction are closely related and may affect adversely the functions of the brain structure such as the hippocampus and the corpus calosum. It is also known to alter the functioning of the neurobiological mechanism that are involved in mediating stress response found on the HPA and which releases cartisol when stimulated by corticotrophin-releasing hormone. Overview It is said that the effects of trauma in childhood may have debilitating effects on some adults while it may have more positive outcomes for others (Miller-Perrin and Perrin, 2007). Multiple experiences of child abuse could adversely affect the physical, cognitive, psychology and behavioral negatively and this would extend to adulthood. Adults who have had a history of abuse and neglect are more likely to suffer from chronic and physical health problems compared to those who have no such a history. Some of these problems include headaches, gynecological problems, stroke, hepatitis, diabetes, gastrointestinal problems and arthritis amongst others (Springer et al., 2007). Springer et al. (2007) concluded from a review of over 2000 middle-aged adult survivors in a longitudinal study within the US that child physical abuse had a greater propensity in attracting severe ill health and medical diagnoses including heart and liver problems as well as high blood pressure. Their probability of indulging in high-risk behaviors such as promiscuity or alcoholism is high (Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2009). Mental health problems are a common experience amongst these individuals. Some of these include PSTD as noted in the study, personality disorders, dissociative disorders, anxiety disorders and psychosis amongst others (Springer et al. 2007). Afifi et al. (2009) postulate that children who have been abused in their early ages have a six times more propensity to PSTD compared to others who have not undergone similar circumstances. These also lead to suicidal thoughts due to flawed functionality and personality disorders that were not tamed early on in life. Gilbert et al. (2009) stipulate that such individuals are at a risk of 12 times more likely to have attempted suicide compared to the rest. It is important, therefore, that research on the effects of environmental genes and the brain's susceptibility to dysfunction as a result of abuse is studied to provide a clearer picture of how such adults can be assisted. In a similar fashion, attachment strategies will always emanate from what one experienced as a child. People who have had unpredictable care-giving experiences may develop ambivalent or pre-occupied attachment strategy that makes it difficult for them to understand the needs for comfort for their loved ones. They do not have the capacity to detect danger via cognition due to the predictability of their caregivers while young (Ehlers et al., 2010). Disorganized attachment is another form of attachment amongst those who felt threatened by their caregivers and thus may find it difficult to approach or avoid the person they are attached to. Helping these individuals needs to begin at an early age. Once noticed, these individuals need to be identified for therapeutic sessions to be initiated and help in mitigating the effects of the childhood trauma. Somatic therapy may be a good way of attaining back better senses as a gateway for regulation and finding equilibrium in the body. This will begin with awareness, focus on sensation, names the effective experience and or may not include touch as a mean of attaining the end result (Schechter et al., 2009). The use of non-verbal cues plays a greater role while conducting these forms of therapies as they help the client feel safe and secure. These may come in the form of tonal range, the language used and body language in use (Crittenden, 2008). This will assist in breaking the barrier that may be created due to these inhibitions. Reciprocal plays may also be utilized as a way of creating a safe environment that will allow the client to speak freely and tell of the deepest experiences that may be preventing them from living a normal life. The therapist may also use disconnect or conflict as a way of repairing any damage done during their early life (Sachs-Ericsson et al., 2009). Behavioral therapy and neurology may also be incorporated as appropriate to provide the best results for these individuals. Where genes are involved, therapy may used to filter the feelings and emotions while the behavioral therapy session assist in creating a renewed individual. This will assist in dealing with their past in a more positive manner. Education can also be used to help in minimizing the effects of the depressing social concerns. This may also be applied in identifying ways of dealing with the issue within the society to help more people open up to counseling and therapy as a way of getting help (Miller-Perrin and Perrin, 2007). References Afifi, T., Boman, J., Fleisher, W., & Sareen, J. (2009). The relationship between child abuse, parental divorce, and lifetime mental disorders and suicidality in a nationally representative adult sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 139-147. Bailey, H. N., Moran, G., & Pederson, D. R. (2007). Childhood maltreatment, complex trauma symptoms, and unresolved attachment in an at-risk sample of adolescent mothers. Attachment and Human Development, 9,139–161. Binder, E. B., Bradley, R. G., & Liu, W., et al. (March 2008). Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA, 299(11): 1291–305. Crittenden, P. M. (2008). Raising parents: Attachment, parenting and child safety. Uffculme, UK: Willan Publishing. Ehlers, A., Bisson, J., Clark, D.M., et al. (March 2010). Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder? Clin Psychol Rev, 30(2): 269–76. Gilbert, R., Spatz Widom, C., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, J. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet, 373, 68-81. Lamont, A. (2010). The effects of child abuse and neglect for children and adolescents (NCPC Resource Sheet). Melbourne: National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies. Miller-Perrin, C., & Perrin, R. (2007). Child maltreatment: An introduction. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Sachs-Ericsson, N., Cromer, K., Hernandez, A., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (2009). A review of childhood abuse, health, and pain-related problems: The role of psychiatric-disorders and current life stress. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 10(2), 170-188. Schechter, D. S., Gross, A., & Willheim, E., et al. (December 2009). Is maternal PTSD associated with greater exposure of very young children to violent media? J Trauma Stress, 22(6): 658–62. Springer, K., Sheridan, J., Kuo, D., & Carnes, M. (2007). Long-term physical and mental health consequences of childhood physical abuse: Results from a large population-based sample of men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 517-530. Read More