Neurology in Psychology - Essay Example

? Essay Examination This paper is a discussion of psychology in the form of essay questions. It emphasizes neuroscience, different personality traits, authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and the impact of psychology in the world as a science not common sense. 1. Describe the basic functioning of a neuron beginning with receiving signals from other neurons or sense organs and ending with the transmission of a signal to another neuron. Explain how a pattern of neuron firing is related to behavior. Neurons are nerve cells that are the basic elements of the nervous system. Their number is confounding and can be as many as a trillion in the body. Though there are various neurons, they all have a similar structure. Neurons are involved in the management of the behavior. They are physically held in place by glial cells, which provide nourishment, insulation and repairs damage as well as giving support. Their unique function is that they have the capability to correspond with other cells and convey information across long distances (Bear et al., 2007). A neuron consists of a cell body that has a cluster of fibers known as dendrites on one end. These fibers, which are similar to twisted branches of trees, receive messages from other neurons. The other side of the neuron is a long, slim tube-like extension known as the axon. According to Bear et al. (2007), this axon carries messages received from the dendrites to other neurons due to its ability to be as long as three feet compared to other neurons. Many axons are usually covered with myelin sheath, a shiny white layer of fatty cells produced by the glial cells, and which are wrapped around the axons to enable them to insulate the axon so as to allow it to speed up the movement of the electrical impulses without the fear of breakage. In essence, Bear et al. (2007) noted that messages that are transmitted from the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of another are in the form of electrical impulses. Like a gun, neurons either fire – which is transmitting an electrical impulse along the axon – or do not fire at all; that is their work on all or none law strategy. But before a neuron is triggered and is at its inactive place, it has a negative electrical charge source by existence of more negative charged ions within the neuron as compared to the outside. However, when a message arrives at the neuron, its cell membrane opens up to allow positive charged ions to rush in (Bear et al., 2007). The discovery of mirror neurons that fire not only when a person has acted on a particular behavior but even when he is observing another one who is doing the same thing as him has helped to describe the capacity of other peoples’ intentions including the ability of children to be able to imitate what others are doing as an inborn behavior (Bear et al., 2007). Neurons connect with each other at particular regions known as synapses where signals are communicated between neurons. It is at the synapses where active neurons release neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are very important in the link between the nervous system and human behavior. In sum, they play an important role in maintaining vital brain and body functions. However, a deficiency or excess of one neurotransmitter is capable of producing severe behavior disorders. Neurotransmitters vary in terms of how strong their concentration are at being able to set a neuron on fire as well as to act as an excitatory message to a neuron that is in the body system (Bear et al., 2007). 2. Describe one personality trait that you believe to be highly heritable (mostly a product of genetics) and another trait that seems to be much less so. Provide reasons for your answer, and explain why you would expect genetics to exert a much greater impact on some personality traits than on others. Personality could be described as the summation of beliefs, attitudes, values and behavior that distinguishes an individual. Every human being has unique quality that makes him or her different from the rest. Nevertheless, as documented by Johnson et al. (1995), a number of factors determine the personality of a person. They are distinctively divided into two: environment and genetics, although in rare cases both can be applied simultaneously. Heredity is one factor that verifies the personality of a person. The DNA make up of a child at birth consists of all the traits that his parents have such as hair, skin color, eye color and body type. It could also include aptitude or the ability to learn a skill or tendency of a particular body of knowledge. This aptitude creates the desire of a person to learn something (Kim, 2008). For example, the daughter of an athlete hero could be expected to inherit the genes of the mother to be able to run. One example of hereditary trait is anger. Anger can be described as a physically powerful feeling of irritation, discontent or hostility. A certain percentage of human beings have anger as hereditary traits in that some of the people in their lineage were easily angered by events or circumstances that surrounded them. Then this could be brought down the generation because of the anger being present in the chromosomes. Environment is another factor that verifies the personality of a person. It is represented by the cultural, situational and social factors. Cultural factors are the values that are earned by someone in life especially when his personality is being formed as it greatly influences his individual behavior. On the other hand, social factors are characterized by family, religion and the society at large. Moreover, situational factors emphasize or diminish some aspects of one’s personality (Johnson et al., 1995). An example of environmental factors is anxiety. Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state that is characterized by somatic, expressive, cognitive and behavioral components. Anxiety may be expressed through painful, intrusive memories, recurring nightmares among other symptoms, which may require medical attention (Kim, 2008). A person could suffer anxiety due to a situation that might have happened to him or her such as fire burning down his or her house and every time he or she sees fire, he or she becomes frightened, which leads to anxiety or symptoms of the same. 3. You have been hired by a large public school system to construct a musical aptitude test. Describe how you would standardize your test and assess its reliability and validity. Explain why it might be more difficult to develop a valid musical aptitude test than a reliable one. Music ability is a concept that encompasses those with talent and those without talent. However, researches have indicated that music aptitude is like all human characteristics; all persons have the ability to achieve it. Nevertheless, some people have high aptitude while others have low aptitude (Groth-Marnat, 2009). In this regard, music learning theory argues that high aptitude students learn more content than average aptitude students. Therefore, this means that individual performance of every student is different from each other. In light of this, music aptitude can only be measured with a valid music aptitude test. Music judgments about the student’s talent are based on musical achievement but not on the potential to achieve. It is, therefore, worth noting that students of average aptitude can not achieve a high level of results related to a high aptitude student (Groth-Marnat, 2009). However, one of the ways to test aptitude would be to test if students are able to read the pitch of the notes on the written music. The other method is by testing the student’s ability to hear the difference between lower and higher notes. Lastly, student’s aptitude can be tested by asking them to sing back short melodies or even by playing it on their instrument. It is also indispensable to check if the student has a sense of rhythm. This can be done by simply asking the student to clap by maintain a given rhythm (Groth-Marnat, 2009). The student should also be in a position to recognize different notes played in a cord. The more notes they can sense, they are conscious in their aptitude. 4. Ray was assigned to barracks in a very old building with old plumbing. While showering for the first time, he heard the toilet flush and then, a few second later, was scalded when the water suddenly became much hotter. He screamed in pain. The next time he took a shower, when he heard the toilet flush, he immediately jumped out of the stream of water and screamed before the water became hotter. Name and describe the process of learning that took place. Be sure to use the correct terminology associated with all of the components involved in the process. For example, originally the sound of the toilet flushing was a (an) ____________ and it later became a (an) __________ because of the process of learning. Originally, the sound of the toilet flushing was an unconditioned stimulus. According to Pavlov, the unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers a response (Bouton & Moody, 2004). At the beginning, Ray did not have an idea of what the sound of toilet flash meant. This means that the act of feeling pain due to the hot water was natural since he did not expect it to happen. Before, he could not have associated the sound of the flashing toilet with hot water. Later, it became unconditioned response. This is true because unconditioned response is the learned response that occurs naturally in response to unconditioned response (Bouton & Moody, 2004). This is evident because out of the first experience with hot water, which is associated with the sound of flashing toilet. The process of learning Ray experienced was classical conditioning. This is a procedure of learning that occurs when association between environmental stimulus and natural occurring stimulus exists. Had Ray not encountered the first incident of hot water, which is associated with the sound of a flashing toilet, he would not have anything to fear about. He jumped out because he associated the sound of the flashing toiled with hot water. 5. Mr. and Mrs. McDonald believe in the importance of stern discipline; they impose strict rules which they expect their children to obey without question. They penalize misbehavior harshly, frequently with a spanking. Mr. and Mrs. Mendoza instead use milder forms of punishment to enforce their rules. They also have regular family meetings in which their children help them to establish household rules and penalties for breaking them. What is the name of each of these two approaches to parenting and what do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of each. Explain the reasons for your answer Mr. and Mrs. McDonald are parents who have taken into consideration the importance of stern discipline to an extent of imposing strict rules which they expect their children to obey is without question a simple way of practicing an authoritarian parenting. An authoritarian parenting is a type of parenting that can be compared to a monarchic administration where rules that are established by the parents are supposed to be followed without question. The failure of children to comply with these rules automatically results in punishment. This kind of parenting style is only necessary when rules have to be followed (Johnson et al., 1995). However, it could be rated as one of the worst parenting styles because it does not bother understanding the emotional level of the children who are supposed to comply with it blindly. Moreover, parents tend to expect too much from their children having not even explained what is expected of them as well as the sole importance of following the rules. This is so because the children are only given commands and punishments without explanation or advice. In essence, it is a harsh kind of parenting style. On the other hand, Mr. and Mrs. Mendoza are parents using milder forms of punishment to ensure that rules are followed. They hold regular family meetings, in which they incorporate their children, to establish household rules and penalties for breaking them. This is a simple way of practicing an authoritative parenting. An authoritative parenting as a type of parenting can be compared to a democratic administration: the subjects of rule are given a chance to speak out through the parents, who exert firm control over the children and expect maturity, but establish reasonable guidelines for them to abide by (Johnson et al., 1995). At the same time, parents practicing this kind of parenting style make disciplinary decisions by integrating the point of view of the children inasmuch as the parents perceive them to be reasonable. This kind of parenting style is said to be one of the best as it incorporates warmth, love and acceptance for the children, hence encouraging the child to be independent, autonomous and assert individuality. It is characterized by parents – children verbal give-and-take which helps in facilitating an open communication between the children and their parents. It is argued that children brought up in an authoritative parenting style may develop secure type of attachment because they have a feeling that they can rely on the parents. 6. When your friend hears that you are taking a psychology course, she asserts that psychology is simply common sense. Explain why common sense is not the best way to understand human behavior. Describe the methods of science and explain why they are superior to common sense in understanding human behavior. Psychology is not mere common sense. It is an ordinary and totally human enterprise which at times escapes the notice of an average person. In essence, most people tend to think that psychology is the study of mental functioning, but fail to understand what psychology is and what psychologists actually do. Every psychologist must clash with the fact that common sense has never been a good lead towards any scientific truth (Hergenhahn, 2009). For instance, common sense told doctors that by draining a patient’s blood the patient would be cured of most common diseases. However, that was not true. A fatal setback associated with commonsense is that it varies from individual to individual. Thus, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and experience. Psychology is a social science that scientifically studies the mind, brain and behavior of human beings. It originated from mental philosophy and gradually evolved to an independent discipline in the late ninth century when it became clear that the mind and its products could be studied through experimental measures (Mills, 1998). Today’s psychology is focused on the understanding of individuals thought, actions, feelings and motives. It includes personality theories where peoples’ personalities are described and assessed. Behavior theory is described as a way in which whole behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Cognitive theory targets center on internal states of human beings, such as problem solving and thinking. Developmental theory is a field of psychology that provides a framework for thinking about growth and development of human beings (Mills, 1998). There are various ways of looking at psychology as a science (Hergenhahn, 2009). Nevertheless, it might not be easy to describe science in a detailed manner. Some of the methods of science include observation, where a psychologist may decide to observe different individual cases. Hence science depends heavily on observation. This observation could be experimental or naturalistic. References Bear, M., et al. (2007). Neuroscience: Exploring the brain. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Bouton, M., & Moody, E. (2004). Memory processes in classical conditioning. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28, 663–674. Groth-Marnat, G. (2009). Handbook of psychological assessment. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hergenhahn, B. (2009). An introduction to the history of psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Johnson, J., et al. (1995).Handbook of personality psychology. San Diego: Academic Press. Kim, Y. (2008). Handbook of behavioral genetics. New York, NY: Springer New York. Mills, J. (1998). Control: A history of behavioral psychology. New York: New York University Press. Read More