Drugs, Crime and Society - Essay Example

Abstract This work deals with the medical model of drug addiction. In this regard, different stages of addiction have been analysed. The various methods of the de – addiction process have been examined. Criticisms in the context of medically assisted withdrawal have been evaluated. The manner in which withdrawal symptoms, such as tremors, vomiting, and hallucinations are to be dealt with has been described. Furthermore, the advantages of adopting the medical model have been described in this work. In addition, the disadvantages associated with this model have also been enumerated. Moreover, a number of physiological dysfunctions resulting from long term drug addiction have been considered. Despite the vast strides taken by medical science and technology, the medical model does not find adequate application. Tthe courts do not subscribe to the view that addiction is a disease. Thus, they treat the petty crimes committed by drug addicts, in the same manner as crimes committed by other criminals. Moreover, there are a substantial number of medical professionals, who do not actively participate in the treatment of addiction. Furthermore, the pharmaceutical companies do not promote research into drugs that could assist in the process of de – addiction. Finally, conclusions were arrived at and recommendations were made regarding the proper implementation of the medical model. Drugs, Crime and Society – Medical Model of Addiction Addiction can be categorised as a compulsive psychological disorder. The addicted individuals develop an uncontrollable desire to consume drugs or alcohol. A majority of the addicted people understand that their addiction has dangerous negative consequences. Despite this knowledge, they cannot stop consuming drugs or alcohol; such is the power of addiction (Drug abuse and Addiction). This is self-destructive behaviour, and it is very difficult to understand. In the advanced stages of addiction, individuals completely lose their ability to abstain from drugs. This is a crucial stage in addiction, and the individual becomes totally dependent on the substance or alcohol, which now becomes a physiological and psychological necessity (Drug abuse and Addiction). It is possible to cure addiction to drugs. Advances in medical science have engendered new techniques and medications that prevent withdrawal symptoms and other negative side effects. The addicted person can regain his normal life with support and these medications. Denial is a dangerous and self-destructive outcome of substance abuse (Drug abuse and Addiction). An addict is liable to put forth several excuses for continuing with the addiction, as the urge to consume the drug becomes stronger. Finally a stage is reached, where the individual can no longer desist from consuming the intoxicant. In effect, the addict develops an unconscious defence mechanism in favour of the addiction (Drug abuse and Addiction). At this stage, the addicted individual strongly refuses to minimise or rationalise consumption of the drug or alcohol. Such addicts believe that they cannot voluntarily control the use of the drug. Denial has various negative outcomes for the individual, such as impaired relationships, loss of job, financial disturbances, and damage to physical and mental health (Drug abuse and Addiction). As such, drug addiction is a mental disorder, under whose influence; the addict believes other people, and not himself, to be ill. Moreover, the addict fails to acknowledge his addiction to drugs. This is involuntary denial and not a conscious act by the addict. As such, the subconscious mind dominates the conscious awareness of the addict. This leads to other negative patterns, such as personality changes and the development of misconceptions about the addiction. All these changes promote the addictive behaviour of the addict who develops a perverted personality that is at marked variance with his former personality (Deans, 1997). The de-addiction process consists of medication and behavioural therapy. This process begins with a combination of therapeutic and detoxification processes. The treatment and relapse prevention procedures are conducted after the completion of the detoxification process. During the treatment, efforts are taken to mitigate withdrawal symptoms. A relapse to addictive behaviour is frequently seen in many addicts (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2009). Hence, the prevention of a relapse is very important in any de-addiction programme. In some cases, the development of chronic conditions and a relapse into addiction, necessitates the re commencement of the entire de-addiction process. The former addict should be provided with continuous care after successful completion of the de-addiction programme. Several aspects of the person have to be taken into consideration, during the care process (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2009). Community care and the support of family members are crucial in leading a drug – free life after treatment. Moreover, such care and support must be provided for a longer period of time. During detoxification, medication is administered to suppress withdrawal symptoms. The combination of medication and detoxification is the first stage in the de-addiction process. It is very important that the patients, who had undergone medically assisted detoxification, should receive follow – up treatment (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2009). In the absence of such post-withdrawal treatment, they may restart drug abuse. Medically assisted withdrawal has attracted criticised by many, because those who undergo this system do not accept responsibility for their addiction behaviour. However, this model has been introduced as part of a public policy initiative to provide better care to addicted individuals. It was designed to evaluate the behaviour of addicted persons, and was aimed at understanding the feelings of the addicted persons and to treat them in a compassionate manner (Ries, Miller, Fiellin, & Saitz, 2009: 10). The Western medical system treats drug addiction as a psychosomatic disorder. This model envisages addiction as something that affects the entire person, and promotes the belief that any person with this disease could become a drug addict. This model has generated considerable criticism, as it contends that people who cannot control their use of drugs become victims of the drug. This model disregards the capabilities of individuals, families and the members of community, and believes that such diseased persons cannot abstain from drugs (An overview of alcohol and other drug issues). The medicine based detoxification process is widely employed in severe drug addiction. It is also utilised, with respect to individuals with poor health and suffering from other medical conditions. In this process, a physician and other medical staff closely monitor the provision of care to the patient. Medical detoxification is mainly used in instances of severe alcoholism. It deals with the withdrawal symptoms of the patient, such as seizure, delirium tremens and autonomic hyperactive, and either prevents or suppresses these symptoms. Medical detoxification can also be employed with individuals who are addicted to illegal drugs and prescription medicines (Drug & Alcohol Detox Centers). In this process, medicines are administered to the addicts, so as to provide relief from the pain and discomfort caused by withdrawal. Moreover, medications are given to expel toxins from the body. Tremors, vomiting, extreme body pains and hallucinations are common withdrawal symptoms in individuals addicted to alcohol or drugs. In order to cope with these symptoms, special medication has to be administered, in the detoxification process. Medicines such as Methadone, levo-alphaacetylmethadol, or Naltrexone are used in the treatment of addiction to opiates (Drug & Alcohol Detox Centers). The medical model of addiction is viewed by some researchers as a system that enables addicts to better understand the problems associated with addiction. Nevertheless, this model has not progressed beyond the theoretical stage, and is at variance with the concept of disease extant in medical literature. In fact, there have been several suggestions that drugs on their own, were nothing more than chemical substances and that the difficulty arose on account of the use to which they were put (Doweiko, 2006, p. 43). Many individuals find it difficult to countenance the crises that they have to countenance. Such emotional upheavals lead to feelings of loss, disappointment, rejection, loneliness and failure. This results in taking to drugs to alleviate the misery and belief that one is incompetent. In order to cope with these unwanted and distressing symptoms, people take recourse to medications (What are some causes of drug addiction?). Such medication is either prescribed by a physician or the individuals indulge in self-medication. In Australia, people in the age group of 20 to 29 years are more likely to fall prey to illegal drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. This age group, in general, exposes itself to greater harm in the long run, in comparison to the other age groups. It has been disclosed in several studies that around 15 % of the teenagers, in the age group of 14 to 19 years, smoke cigarettes daily. More than 28 % consume illegal drugs and nearly 12 % are alcoholics. In addition, the number of smokers is higher among the Indigenous people than the non – Indigenous people (Alcohol and drug harm in Australia). Long – term drug or alcohol addiction causes physiological dysfunctions, like endocrine dysfunction. The medical model of detoxification deals with such dysfunctions in addicted persons. There are several theories in the medical model that define the patterns of alcoholism. On the other hand, the disease model of alcoholism ascribes physiological reasons for addiction, such as genetic predisposition (Miller, 2004, p. 10). The disease model describes alcoholism as a progressive ailment, with recognisable symptoms. One such symptom is the loss of control over drinking. This factor promotes the progress of the disease, and culminates in the demise of the individual. This differs from the moral view regarding alcoholism (Miller, 2004, p. 10). The disease model advocates compassion, understanding, and treatment of the alcoholic. The Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) organisation partially adopted the disease model. As a result it views alcoholism as an illness that has physical, mental, and spiritual ramifications. The alcoholic is not held responsible for the progression of the addiction. However, he is held responsible for future behaviour. Addiction usually transpires when the alcoholic feels powerless to control it (Miller, 2004, p. 10). This model, which was implemented in the Minnesota Model of treatment, comprises of twelve steps. The persons who had recovered from addiction act as counsellors, during these stages, and provide the necessary guidance to the patients. This system of de-addiction was popular in the 1960s and 1970s, and provided a holistic treatment to the addict. The latter overcame their feelings of guilt over their addiction, during the treatment and successfully overcame it. Moreover, this process involves members of the community, after the completion of the treatment, in order to provide the required care and support to the recovered individuals (Miller, 2004, p. 10). The psychological model includes acute and chronic phases of addiction. In this model, the individual is not held responsible for the development of the disease. However, on being diagnosed with this disease, it becomes the responsibility of the addict to adopt the required measures to reduce the addiction. This is described as an allergy of the body in the medical model (Clark, 1999, p. 4). The medical model of addiction states that there are four essential features, associated with the disease of addiction. First, there should be observable synchronic and diachronic symptoms in the person. Second, the symptoms must have resulted on account of a deviation from the normal functioning of the individual. Third, the deviation must admit of localisation in the individual’s body. Fourth, the physical condition of the individual should be sufficient to establish the presence of the disease. These symptoms can be measured, by means of reliable methods and do not depend on the conventions of society (Ross, Kincaid, Spurrett, & Collins, 2010, p. 353). Medical models are effective in determining the aberrant behaviour of addicted individuals. This is because medical models have gained adequate understaindng of the normal biological functions and systems of addicted persons. Moroever, the deviation is believed to be the outcome of the disease, and the presence of the deviation ensure the inevitability of the disease (Ross, Kincaid, Spurrett, & Collins, 2010, p. 354). The medical model connotes that either a person is afflicted with the disease or is free from it. Addiction, per se, can begin at any time, in a person’s life. Nosology or the systematic classification of disease, commences with the identification of the distinguishing features of the disease. Ultimately, the chief factor is a lesion or malfunction (Ross, Kincaid, Spurrett, & Collins, 2010, p. 354). Thus, medical models look at the changes that take place in the functions of the body. However, these medical models primarily concentrate on localising the cause of the disease. This is the implication of those who designate addiction as a biological phenomenon. All said and done, there is general agreement that addiction is an intricate phenomenon that includes factors like genetics, nuerobiology, and the environment (Ross, Kincaid, Spurrett, & Collins, 2010, p. 354). New methods and measures are in practice for treating and rehabilitating addicts. Supporters of the medical model of addiction strongly contend that drug addicts are not criminals. They contend that these individuals are mentally or physically ill, and that they resort to petty crime, in order to procure intoxicants. The advocates of the enslavement theory of addiction believe that addiction should be treated as a disease. It is their fervent stance that society should not punish addicts. Moreover, addicts should be provided with treatment and rehabilitation, as addiction is a disease(Gaines & Miller, 2008, p.45). In other words, drug addicts mut be treated like any other patient. The American Medical Association and several international organisations have identified alcoholism and addiction to other intoxicants as a disease. However, the criminal justice system chose to ignore the medical model of addiction; and treats addiction under the criminal model. In this model, individuals who abuse drugs and addicts are considered to be criminals who bring to bear a bad influence on society with their behaviour. In addition, the criminal model declares that drug addicts provoke other members of society to adopt their inisiduous ways (Gaines & Miller, 2008, p.45). It is imperative to acknowledge that addiction affects the brain of the individual. Such acceptance will involve the medical community in large scale programmes that attempt to curtail this activity. Family physicians and paediatricians can render yeoman service in detecting drug abuse among children and adolescents. Another important iniatitive is to test individuals for drug abuse. Such screening will enable the better management of cardiac and pulmonary disease, as it will permit a reduction in problems contributed by drug abuse (Ries R. K., Miller, Fiellin, & Saitz, 2009: p. 10). At present, adequate training is not provided to physicians, nurses, psychologists and social workers, in managing addiction. Drug addiction is a major contributor to ill health and disease in humans. It is one of the major chronic dsorders, humans. The problem is compounded by the fact that the pharmaceutical companies are not interested in developing medical products for treating drug addiction. This unwelcome situation has hindered the prevention or treatment of addiction. The other factors that act as barriers for seeking treatment are social stigma, non-reimbursement for drug abuse treatment, and scant marketing opportunities for pharmaceutical companies. All these factors have combined to discourage people from accessing treatment for drug addiction (Ries R. K., Miller, Fiellin, & Saitz, 2009: p. 10). The study of neurobiological factors provides new medications to deal with addiction. However, there are several other factors that impede the successful implementation of nuerobiological findings. These include the scarce participation of the medical community in the treatment of addiction, lack of involvement of pharmaceutical companies in developing new drugs to combat addiction, on account of limited market opportunities, and the non availability of reimbursement facility from private insurance companies for the treatment of drug addiction, and the social stigma attached with drug addiction. These barriers have to be removed, in order to promote the treatment of drug addiction(Ries R. K., Miller, Fiellin, & Saitz, 2009: p. 10). This itself poses a major challenge to all the entities involved in the treatment of addiction to drugs. The human brain plays a significant role in addiction. The functions and the influences of the brain on behaviour have to be first comprehended, in order to address the problem of addiction. The advancement of medical science has paved the way for the emergence of new branches of science, such as genetics, molecular biology, behavioural neuropharmacology, and brain imaging technology. Despite these beneficial developments, there are several obstacles to the implementation of the medical model. For instance, the criminal justice system, tends to view even the trivial crimes committed by drug addicts, in the same light as it views crimes by non – drug addicts. Moreover, many drug addicts refrain from undergoing treatment for their addiction, as they are apprehensive of the social stigma attendant upon being labelled a drug addict. Furthermore, a substantial number of the medical profession lends limited support to the medical model. In addition, the pharmaceutical companies do not find it economically feasible to incur expenditure on research and development of drugs that could assist in curing drug addiction. To surmise, the medical model offers a humane and rational approach to addressing drug addiction, among the populace. Unfortunately, there are a number of isues that deprive it of the success and popularity that it deserves. Perceptions about drug addiction have to change, and this is essential for treating drug addiction like any other disease. List of References Alcohol and drug harm in Australia. (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2010, from http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/fca/subabuse/report/chapter2.pdf An overview of alcohol and other drug issues. (n.d.). Retrieved October 8, 2010, from http://www.nt.gov.au/health/healthdev/health_promotion/bushbook/volume2/chap1/sect1.htm Clark, M. (1999). Which came first – addiction or disease? Dr. Marylyn Clark. Deans, D. A. (1997). Drug Addiction. Retrieved October 6, 2010, from http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/drugs.htm Doweiko, H. E. (2006). Concepts of chemical dependency. Cengage Learning. Drug & Alcohol Detox Centers. (n.d.). Retrieved October 8, 2010, from http://www.drugalcohol-rehab.com/detox-drugalcohol-rehab-centers.htm Drug abuse and Addiction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2010, from http://helpguide.org/mental/drug_substance_abuse_addiction_signs_effects_treatment.htm Gaines, L. K., & Miller, R. L. (2008). Criminal Justice in Action. Cengage Learning. Miller, G. A. (2004). Learning the language of addiction counselling. John Wiley and Sons. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2009). Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction. Retrieved October 6, 2010, from http://www.nida.nih.gov/infofacts/treatmeth.html Ries, R. K., Miller, S., Fiellin, D. A., & Saitz, R. (2009). Principles of Addiction Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Ross, D., Kincaid, H., Spurrett, D., & Collins, P. (2010). What is Addiction? MIT Press. What are some causes of drug addiction? (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2010, from http://www.allaboutlifechallenges.org/causes-of-drug-addiction-faq.htm Read More