Viagra as a Great Serendipity - Coursework Example

Serendipity: Introduction Definition Serendipity is the term used for a pleasant accident or a wonderful surprise. Serendipity is the accidental discovery of something that is of immense use, value, or significance, while it was not being looked for. The term was coined by a fairy tale in which three Persian princes made a journey to the Island called as Serendip and along the way, they found delightful and wondrous secrets about the island, and got an opportunity to learn about things they did not anticipate to. “One such learning was purported to be the discovery that a mule blind in its right eye had recently traveled the same road. This was discovered when they noticed that the grass had been eaten only on the left side of the road” (“Serendipity”). History and Etymology Merton got into serendipity in the 1930s. Merton found in the Oxford English Dictionary that the heroes in “The Three Princes of Serendip” frequently yet accidentally made discoveries of things they were not looking for originally. This matched Merton’s theories of the significance of unforeseen results of intended actions. With this, the sociological as well as etymological research started that led to The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity. Examples of Serendipitous Discoveries A few examples of serendipitous discoveries in the history include chocolate chip cookies, popsicles, artificial sweetener, brandy, microwave oven, and Penicillin. While Mrs. Wakefield was involved in making the chocolate cookies, the regular baker’s chocolate finished. Mrs. Wakefield instantly decided to replace it with chunks of semi-sweet chocolate so that they would melt and get mixed with the batter, but the chunks did not mix, thus giving birth to the chocolate chip cookies. Her cookies were liked so much that Nestle had to purchase the recipe of the chocolate chip cookies from Mrs. Wakefield. She was given a lifetime supply of chocolate chips in return. Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish Scientist who was studying Staphylococcus in 1928. One day, Fleming found a blue-green mould just as he had turned up at work. That mould appeared to inhibit bacterial growth. Fleming grew that mould’s pure culture which led to the discovery of the Penicillium mould. Viagra: Introduction Before Viagra Herbal treatments have long been practiced throughout the history before Viagra was discovered, though no treatment to date has been found quite as effective as Viagra in the treatment of erectile dysfunctions. Before the availability of Viagra and such other drugs whose function is directed at the treatment of the erectile dysfunction, the extract of a plant called as Yohimba was prescribed by the doctors. The derivative obtained from Yohimba was called as Ginseng. Ginseng functioned by increasing the flow of blood in the genitals. However, Ginseng is not prescribed frequently by doctors around the world because of its tendency to cause adverse effects on health and agitation. Gingko was originally used to treat senility, but was then started to be used to treat the erectile dysfunction, particularly when the dysfunction was caused by the consumption of antidepressants. What is Viagra? Physical intercourse lays the foundations of a long-lasting intimate relationship between two people. The effect of erectile dysfunction on the intimacy between partners is lethal. There are several factors that become the cause of disease of impotence that include but are not limited to noise pollution, air pollution, persistent stress, and unbalanced diet. Pfizer is the name of the pharmaceutical company that is popular among men with erectile dysfunctions all across the globe as it has provided them with Viagra; the all-time favorite drug of men around the world that fights impotence. “Viagra, the little blue pill. Originally developed as a treatment for heart disease, its penile erection enhancing effects were noted in clinical trials and Pfizer quickly saw the drug's potential marketability as the first pill for men with trouble getting it up or keeping it up” (Salyer). Viagra has made its name in the list of the most well-known medicines world over in just a few decades. Viagra was not available to the consumers before the year 1988. Today, it is just as popular as a medicine as Paracetamol or Aspirin. Every year, Viagra does a sale of anywhere around £1billion. Quality of Life Drug In order for the penis to function properly during the physical intercourse, it is imperative that blood flows in sufficient amount out of the penis vessels into the spongy tissue contained in the penis. This tissue which surrounds the vessels is called as carpus cavarnosum. Erection occurs as a result of the filling of blood in a certain amount in the spongy tissue. Strong erection does not occur without the leak out of blood from the vessels into the carpus cavarnosum’s spaces. Viagra increases the amount of cGMP in the blood vessels so that they get dilated. cGMP’s effect on the walls of the vessels is dilatory. Increased dilation causes the release of large amount of blood from the pores along the walls of these vessels, so that it fills up the spaces in the sinuses in the penis. As a result of this, string erection takes place. The popularity of Viagra can be estimated from the fact that 23 million men all over the world since 1998, have filled the Viagra prescriptions, which tells that Viagra is amongst the most widely used drugs in the history of medicines. “Generic Viagra has been able to treat 90 % of cases of sexual dysfunction, allowing men to have penetrative intercourse with their partners” (“Generic Viagra”). Viagra is prescribed in three dosages. The first prescription is limited to the dosage of 25 mg. Older men are generally prescribed Viagra in this dosage. The dosage is only increased when the smaller dosage stops yielding the desired results. Viagra is also available in 50 mg and 100 mg. The drug is administered about thirty minutes before the physical intercourse, and its erection effect on the penis generally lasts for about four hours. Viagra is diamond shaped and is blue in color. Although the health friendly role of Viagra is very popular, yet it may cause certain side effects including headache, diarrhea, loss of hearing, priaprism, dizziness, and cyanotic visual disturbance. Inventors of Viagra Workers at the Pfizer are paid to work. So their inventions are the property of the Pfizer. Viagra has not been invented by a single worker at the Pfizer. The drug has been developed by mutual working of hundreds of people. Talking about the inventors of Viagra, the spokesperson of Pfizer Pharmaceuticals said, “Life might seem cruel, but they are paid to work for the company and the company owns their inventions. Literally hundreds of people at Pfizer have been involved in developing the drug. You can't really point to two individuals and say they spawned Viagra” (Bellis). Nevertheless, the British Press has named Albert Wood and Peter Dunn as the creators of the process of development of Viagra. Both of these have served as the workers of the Pfizer Pharmaceuticals. In this capacity, Albert Wood and Peter Dunn do not have the permission to claim their status as the inventors of Viagra. This can also be assessed from the statement of Albert Wood, “I can’t say anything, you’ll have to talk to the press office…” (Wood cited in Bellis). In the year 1991, Dr. Nicholas Terrett, Andrew Bell, and Dr. David Brown found the effectiveness of the chemical compounds related to the pyrazolopyrimidinone class in the treatment of such problems of heart as angina. Dr. Nicholas Terrett is generally considered as the founder of Viagra. The Anatomy of Penis There is a covering at the head of the penis, which is called as the prepuce. This forms a double layer by folding in on itself. The foreskin at the penis’s end is neither flap, nor redundant. The length of the foreskin varies naturally. Accordingly, portion of the glans covered varies. When the penis is erect and in the unfolded state, the area of skin in an average adult man who has had circumcision, which lacks as a result of the surgery of penile reduction is three inches by five inches. This makes almost half of the penis’s total skin. The outer foreskin layer of the penis is the same as the skin of the penis’s shaft whereas the inner foreskin layer is a unique mucocutaneous tissue which is only located there and is nowhere else. The interface between the inner foreskin layer and the outer foreskin layer is a ridged band. In the state of no erection, this ridged band tightens up so that the opening of the foreskin is narrowed. When the penis is erect, the ridged band makes ridges which protrude all around at least halfway down the penis’s shaft. The glans of the penis is reddish in color and is an extremely sensitive and smooth area. The penis contains a connecting membrane known as the frenulum which is similar to the one that is beneath the tongue. The foreskin plays a lot of functions in the erection of penis. It covers the synechia and makes a bond with it so that the mucosal surface of the inner foreskin and glans is formed. The foreskin provides the glans penis with protection against abrasion and friction, and lubricates the glans. It plays a fundamental role in stimulating the female partner’s G-spot. When the foreskin is completely retracted, it covers the whole of the penis shaft and is yet lose enough to glide. The location of the ridged bands is halfway down the shaft. The Anatomy of Erection The most important parts of the penis during the intercourse and foreplay include the foreskin’s sensations, glans, and frenulum. Each of these structures has its own distinct feeling, and contributes to the sexual stimulation of the man. The emotional excitement forms the base of sexual enjoyment, and serves to enhance the perception of the male regarding all physical sensations originating in the penis. The foreskin contains an outer layer and an inner layer. There are nerve endings located at the outer foreskin that respond when touched gently in the arousal stage of sex. This stimulates the penis to the extent of erection. These nerves play a very important role in the penile stimulation throughout to the point of orgasm. Stretching stimulates these receptors. The sensory receptors contained in the foreskin are called as Meissner corpuscles. These nerve endings provide fine sensory perception so that the man can have sex for a longer time before ejaculating. The sensory receptors also help a man know when he is getting at the threshold of orgasm. Stimulation of the frenulum generates intense feelings of pleasure during sexual arousal. Sensations from the ridges primarily trigger orgasm during the sexual intercourse. Science of the Drug The Composition of Viagra These days, different forms of Viagra are available in the market. These forms include but are not limited to Kamagra, Silagra, Cavetra, Tadalis, and Penegra. The main ingredients of all of them are such PDE5 inhibitors as Vardenafil, Sildenafil, or Tadalafil, which act as vasodilators. Viagra also contains a range of chemicals including microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmellose, calcium hydrogen phosphate, and magnesium stearate. The bioavailability of Viagra is almost 40 per cent. the metabolites and sildenafil citrate contained in the drug remain circulated in the body for almost four hours after which, they get excreted. The outer layer of Viagra is made up of triacetin, lactose, indigo carmine aluminum lake, titanium dioxide, and hypermellose. Nearly all chemicals contained in Viagra have been proven safe, though users are recommended to consult a physician before taking the drug. The Structure of Viagra There are a minimum of 21 genes in the human genome/ These genes assess the intracellular levels of cyclic guanosine 3,5-monophospahate (cGMP) and hydrolyze cyclic adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP) through phosphodiesterase proteins (PDEs). These enzymes serve to hydrolyze the cGMP and cAMP, that play the role of second messengers into GMP and AMP respectively. There are at least 11 groups of these PDE’s, called as PDE1 – PDE11. The cGMP and cAMP govern a lot of physiological processes. The adenylyl cyclase enzyme forms cAMP through ATP whereas the guanylyl cyclase enzyme formed the cGMP through GTP. These are either soluble in cytosol or bound by membrane. When it is soluble in the cytosol, it serves as a nitric oxide’s receptor. Once the cGMP is formed in the body, it causes numerous reactions to commence in the body. One of these reactions is the influence on the protein kinase G (PKG), cGMP binding proteins, and the cGMP ion channels. The level of calcium is reduced as a result of the effect on PKG, which causes the smooth muscles to relax. The PDE5 enzyme does not hydrolyze cAMP. It only hydrolyzes cGMP. A complex network of hydrogen bonding mediates this selectivity, so that it is unfavorable for cAMP, but is favorable for cGMP. When the PDE5 enzyme gets inhibited, it raises the concentration of cGMP so that the relaxation of the smooth muscles can be enhanced. There is only one subtype of PDE5, which is PDE5A. There are four isoforms of PDE5A in humans. The chemical structure of Viagra is shown in the figure below: Chemical structure of Viagra (“Sildenafil – Viagra”). Role of Viagra in the treatment of Diseases “Viagra is more than just a blockbuster drug that treats a widespread sexual ailment, it demonstrates a whole new type of drug that will have bearing on the lifestyle of millions” (“Men Sexual Health”). Although Viagra has earned fame for the treatment of erectile dysfunction in men, yet it is also suitable for the treatment of certain other diseases both in men and women. Viagra has been frequently tested for its effect upon men with erectile dysfunction, and has been readily found extremely effective in eradicating erectile dysfunction in men of all ages in general, and old men in particular. Erectile dysfunction has been conventionally treated with drugs which inhibit sildenafil, vardenafil, PDE5, and tadalafil. These inhibitors work by relaxing the muscles, increasing the cGMP, and hence causing the erection of penis during the physical intercourse. Viagra is also effective for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary hypertension results from upregulation of the PDE gene expression. It is the cause of vasoconstriction of the lungs. Pulmonary hypertension is reduced by PDE5 inhibitors as they act as the potent pulmonary vasodilators. “Long-term treatment with a PDE5 inhibitor improved pulmonary hypertension secondary to HF and the NPs-cGMP pathway contributed to this therapeutic effect” (Yamamoto et al.). Testing of Viagra Pfizer developed Viagra originally to treat people suffering from chest pain, though sildenafil citrate did not prove very effective as a heart medicine, so the research was stopped in 1992. However, researchers at the Pfizer pharmaceutical company starting considering Viagra as a treatment option for erectile dysfunction after discovering its properties. The drug was tested for its effect on men with erectile dysfunction. “Eventually, 21 randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials involving more than 3700 patients, ages 19 to 87 years, were held worldwide” (“Viagra for Treatment”). Participants involved in this research had different levels of impotence because of diabetes, history of prostate surgery, or injury of the spinal cord. No organic cause could be identified for some of the research participants. There were certain patients with coexisting illnesses of coronary artery disease and hypertension. The research found Viagra to be extremely effective, and the drug was thus approved by FDA within the first six moths after submission of the results of the research. Owing to the lack of any side effects or troubling questions, FDA approved Viagra without consulting any outside experts’ advisory committee. It can be said without doubt that no chemical drug before Viagra has done as good business as Viagra both with men who suffer from the problem of erectile dysfunction and others that do not. Steps in the Making of Viagra The making of Viagra consists of series of steps. In the first step, 3-propylpyrazole-5-carboxylic acid ethyl ester is methylated with the hot dimethyl sulfate solution. The solution is hydrolyzed to free acid with aqueous NaOH. It is then nitrated with fuming nitric acid. In the next step, carboxamide formation takes place with refluxing NH4OH. The nitro group is reduced to amino. 2-ethoxybenzoyl chloride is then used for acylation. In the steps that follow, cyclization, sulfonation, and condensation takes place. The empirical formula of Viagra is C22H30N6O4S. It has a molecular weight equal to 474.5, and it displays a 3.5 mg/mL of solubility in water. The Discovery of Viagra Dr. Gill Samuels was assigned the responsibility of looking after the discovery of compounds to treat the patients of migraines and hypertension. At Pfizer, she was the director of vascular biology and made part of the team that made Viagra. According to Dr. Gill Samuels, Viagra was discovered after 13 years of hard work in the year 1985. She shared the experience in these words: "We were looking at various disorders in vascular contraction when we came across this new class of compound that could relax blood vessels. I have heard people call it a lifestyle drug but I don't think of it like that. It has caused men to think differently about their health. It has de-stigmatised erectile health and as someone who had to review all the letters of patients, who say 'It has stopped me killing myself' or 'It has stopped me hitting my wife', that I realise what a good medicine it is” (Samuels cited in “The Woman Who”). The Pfizer Pharmaceutical Company Pfizer is the famous pharmaceutical company which introduced the drug Viagra. Two cousins Charles Erhart and Charles Pfizer founded Pfizer. Since 1849, Pfizer has been dedicated to the development of new and improved ways of the treatment of diseases as well as health conditions for everybody’s well being. The active pharmaceutical ingredients of Viagra are manufactured by Pfizer at Ringaskiddy. This production makes almost 15 per cent of the total output of the manufacturing plant. Pfizer pharmaceutical company produces as many as 17 products in addition to Viagra, including Norvasc that is frequently prescribed for the treatment of angina as well as hypertension. The plant at Ringaskiddy covers a total area of 200 acres. A total of 500 people are employed in it and the plant contains four production units. Commencement of the production in the OSP4 plant in 2001 caused an increase in the production of the plant by 40 per cent. “The company contributes close to $151 million to the Irish economy and its current investment of $302 million in the OSP4 plant brings its investment spending over a five year period to more than $453 million” (“Pfizer Ringaskiddy”). The Real Inventor of Viagra Pfizer pharmaceutical company tried to keep the name of the original inventors of Viagra secret, but somehow, the names got leaked out. Most of the documented resources hold Albert Wood and Peter Dunn responsible for inventing Viagra. Invention of Viagra was later claimed by many doctors and scientists, though Pfizer pharmaceutical company eventually got the copyright in its name. Nevertheless, there remains a certain level of subjectivity about the actual inventor of Viagra, as there is different evidence available for different inventors within the workforce of the Pfizer pharmaceutical company. Viagra Today Today, Viagra is known almost everywhere in the planet. Over the years, Pfizer has brought a shift in their marketing strategy. Their current advertising is not just directed at men having problems of erection. Today, “it's full of vibrant sports heroes (NASCAR drivers declaring, "Gentlemen, start your engines!"), attractive professional types strutting through offices (colleagues ponder what's different about Joe and Bob these days) and most recently, ads featuring guys with the blue V from Viagra's brand logo rising behind their heads like a pair of Devil horns” (Slayer). Viagra is as famous among young adults as it is among the old people. According to the results of a research that was conducted between 1998 and 2002 and involved over 5 million insured adults, men aged between 18 and 55 years were the fastest-growing user segments of Viagra (Sahelian). Viagra is not used by people necessarily for treating erectile dysfunction. Many men with little or no erectile dysfunction opt to take Viagra just to enhance their performance and enjoy extreme male virility. Today Viagra has become a landmark of sexual fantasies. “In the years since it was introduced in 1998, former Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole has served as a spokesman for the drug, manufacture of counterfeit pills has gone through the roof, and Viagra jokes are now a permanent feature of the pop culture landscape” (Brain and Lambert). The Future of Viagra Although Viagra has been immensely famous for its effectiveness against erectile dysfunction, yet it has conventionally been subjected to criticism because of the fact that it is a chemical product as well as the fact that it is known to cause certain side effects in the users including hearing loss, headache, diarrhea, and loss of vision. In the contemporary age, when everybody is looking for organic alternatives to chemical products, the future of Viagra is not very secure. Owing to its side effects, Viagra is not prescribed more than once a day. Besides, there are certain organic and herbal alternatives to Viagra that are surfacing and gaining the attention of the health-conscious users. Alternatives to Viagra Soon after the discovery of Viagra, several pharmaceutical companies attempted to develop their own versions of Viagra. For example, “GlaxoSmithKline unveiled Levitra, which is similar in profile to Viagra, but Eli Lilly introduced Cialis, a product the manufacturer claims will start working twice as fast as Viagra and continues for up to 24-36 hours, compared to Viagra and Levitra's promised 4-6 hour window” (Salyer). One of the alternatives to Viagra is Cialis, which claims to provide the users with even more harder, and longer-lasting erections without side effects and dosage prescriptions. The effect of Cialis is much longer lasting as compared to Viagra. While the effect of Viagra usually lasts for four hours, one pill of Cialis swallowed on the night of Friday suffices for the next two days of the weekend. Development of such drugs as Cialis and Levitra has given Viagra some tough competition. Cialis has 100 per cent herbal formula. Its characteristics include but are not limited to long-lasting, fast-acting, immediate results, enhanced recovery times between multiple orgasms, and lack of need of any erection aids or pumps. A potential trait that provides Cialis with an edge over Viagra is that users may take it as per their need and want without having to see a doctor, pay the fees and face the embarrassment of discussing their erectile dysfunction. Another alternative to Viagra is Increcia which is a non-prescription supplement which serves to eradicate erectile dysfunction. “The proprietary blend of high quality natural ingredients in Increcia support healthy blood flow to the genital region for enhanced erection firmness, fullness and lasting ability” (“Finally, a safe”). Conclusion Erectile dysfunction is one of the most fundamental issues of men in the contemporary age. Viagra, the product of the Pfizer pharmaceutical company, has solved the problem of erectile dysfunction of millions of men around the world. Viagra is one of the most qualifying examples of serendipity in that the inventors of Viagra found it effective for the treatment of erectile dysfunction just by an accident, as they were developing a drug to treat chest pain. The importance of Viagra to men can be estimated from the fact that it is personally prescribed by doctors for the treatment of erectile dysfunction in men which makes Viagra stand out from the queue of the regular herbal medicines, which people take at their own risk and that reveal several side effects while solving the problem. However, care must be exercised in taking only the right dosage of Viagra. Viagra makes the muscles relaxed and reduces the flow of blood to the eye’s optic nerve. In some cases, this can be very risky as it may cause sudden loss of vision. Viagra is not prescribed more than once a day. This potency pill is a ray of hope for men experiencing erectile dysfunctions. Originally, Viagra raised concerns among women as it increased the pain for them during the physical intercourse, but such concerns have been settled over the years. There are certain side effects of Viagra that include but are not limited to impaired hearing, loss of vision, headache, dizziness, and diarrhea. The drug lasts four hours in effect, and is not prescribed more than once a day. Viagra is available in 25 mg, 50 mg, and 100 mg dosages, which are prescribed to individual users depending upon the level of effectiveness required. Viagra is available in most of the medical stores in the developed countries, and in large medical stores in the developing countries. It is readily available to be purchased online from many stores. Over the years, as Viagra has been advertised more and more, the number of its users has increased almost everywhere in the world. A significant percentage of the total users of Viagra do not actually need it as they do not have any erectile dysfunction, but the mere fact that it enhances male virility appeals young men to try it. Viagra is a chemical drug. These days, herbal alternatives to Viagra are appearing in the market which include Cialis and Levitra. These herbal alternatives appeal more to users who opt for organic and herbal solutions to the medical problems. Works Cited: Bellis, Mary. “Viagra.” 2012. Web. 13 May 2012. . Brain, Marshall, and Lambert, Katie. “How Viagra Works.” 2012. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Finally, a safe, all-natural alternative to Viagra or Cialis.” 2001. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Generic Viagra and its chemical composition.” 15 Nov. 2010. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Men Sexual Health : Viagra As A Lifestyle Drug.” 2007. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Pfizer Ringaskiddy.” 2011. Web. 13 May 2012. . Sahelian, Ray. “Viagra Alternatives that may be used alone or together with the pharmaceutical impotence drug.” n.d. Web. 13 May 2012. . Salyer, David. “The Dangers of Using and Abusing Viagra.” Dec. 2004. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Serendipity.” 2008. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Sildenafil - Viagra Chemical Structure.” 2012. Web. 13 May 2012. . “Viagra for Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction.” n.d. Web. 13 May 2012. . “The Woman Who Invented Viagra.” 30 Mar. 2011. Web. 13 May 2012. . Yamamoto, Takashi; Wada, Atsuyuki; Tsutamoto, Takayoshi; Ohnishi, Masato; and Horie, Minoru. “Long-Term Treatment with a Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibitor Improves Pulmonary Hypertension Secondary to Heart Failure through Enhancing the Natriuretic Peptides-cGMP Pathway.” Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. Vol. 44. No. 5. (2004): 596-600. Read More