Planning in Preparing Cities for Climate Change - Term Paper Example

The role for urban and regional planning in preparing cities for climate change impacts Introduction The purpose of this essay is to evaluate the role that urban and regional planning plays in helping cities prepare for the impact of climate change. The essay is based on the findings of different studies on the subject that have been carried out as well as on different case studies on how cities and regions have managed to adapt to the effects of climate change using different strategies. In the essay, the role of planning in helping cities and regions prepare for the effects of climate change is evaluated in two broad forms: facilitation of adaptation to changes resulting from climate change and enhancement of efforts at mitigation of potential effects of climate change in different regions. Essentially, the essay is divided into two broad sections. In the first section, a brief evaluation of the relationship between cities and climate change is provided. The role that cities play as both contributors to and victims of climate change is evaluated in this section. This lays the ground for the second section of the essay in which the role of urban planning in helping cities prepare for the effects of climate change is presented. This second section, which forms the bulk of the essay, contains information on different ways in which urban planning can help cities and regions either adapt to the changes occasioned by climate change or mitigate the adverse effects arising from climate change. This is done with reference to different case studies on climate change adaptation strategies. Cities and climate change There is a close interaction between cities and climate change. This close interaction is witnessed in different ways that make cities important aspects in the fight against climate change. For instance, a close interaction between the two is witnessed as a result of the ever growing populations in cities which correspond to an increase in the levels of energy use as well as emission of greenhouse gases (Bulkeley 2013, p. 8). This relationship contributes to social, economic and environmental changes. As such, cities are not only one of the greatest contributors to the process of climate change but, as a result of the high population and their role in different economies, one of the greatest victims of the impact of climate change (Dhakal 2011, p. 173). In the same vein, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [cited by Norman (2014)] observes that many cities and regions in general have been heavily affected by climate change and, as a result, need to shift adaptation methods from gradual ones to highly transformational ones. With extreme events resulting from the effects of climate change being witnessed in several areas of the world, particularly in cities, cities and regional governments need to take urgent and sustained actions to ensure that they are able to mitigate such effects. One kind of approach, as suggested by the IPCC, is that cities need to base their planning on an integrated approach that takes into account their specific needs (Norman 2014). Such kind of collaboration will enable cities and regions in general to adopt risk management strategies to counter the extreme effects of climate change being witnessed (Boswell, Greve & Seale 2012, p. 156). This can take place in the form of urban and regional governments taking the initiative of planning for the right policies to help their populations either adapt to the changes or mitigate the effects arising from the changes. This is possible because local governments in charge of cities have the mandate to plan and control the development of buildings, transport facilities, supply of energy and settlement patterns within the areas of their jurisdiction (Bulkeley 2013, p. 12). Therefore, by taking advantage of their mandate over a wide range of services, local governments responsible for the jurisdiction of cities can play a key role by planning for how their areas can mitigate the impacts of climate change. Because of this complex interaction between cities and climate change where they are as much vulnerable to the effects of climate change as they are responsible for creating conditions that contribute to climate change, cities can play a key role in mitigating the effects of climate change as well as adapting to the changes occasioned by the phenomenon. The role of planning in preparing cities for climate change Planning plays an important role in helping cities prepare for the effects of climate change. In general, the ability of urban and regional planning to help cities cope with the effects of climate change can be realised in the form of the initiatives taken by the municipalities to safeguard the economic and social facilities of cities (Calthorpe 2010, p. 7). Generally, cities serve as important economic bases for the regions in which they are found. This is because of the large concentration of human populations that they attract and the related levels of industrialisation and infrastructural development. As a way of protecting such facilities, many cities across the world have made important adaptations to the natural environment as well as climatic conditions for their own survival (International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 2007, p. 3). Therefore, since the degree of exposure to the effects of climate change varies from one city to another, many cities have sought to ensure that their adaptation of the natural environment is done in such a manner that they are able to withstand the effects of climate change in the long run. The extent to which cities have developed sound planning policies for the sole aim of combating the effects of climate change has varied from place to place over time (Crichton, Nicol & Roaf 2009, p. 137). For instance, urban planning in many cities in Africa and Asia has struggled to manage to control the effects of climate change as a result of failing to change from the ineffective old top-down model to current innovative ones (Mosha 2011, p. 88). Since the building environment is a key sector that contributes to the generation of greenhouse gases and, by extension, one of the areas in which effective policies for control of greenhouse gases can be implemented, many cities in the developing regions have failed to effectively develop the right policies to regulate this sector. The result has been that urban development planning has been greatly compromised as a result of lack of resources, leading to poor policies to mitigate the effects of climate change. Among the member states of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Australia remains the country that is most vulnerable to the impact of climate change (Smith 2014). This has been exhibited by effects of the phenomenon on different aspects of the country. For instance, the country is expected to experience more water supply problems in the form of reductions in the southern and eastern regions (Smith 2014). This will be intensified by greater risks of flooding in coastal areas as well as a significant loss of biodiversity over the next few decades (Smith 2014). This implies that considerable parts of the country are likely to experience extreme effects of climate change in the near future. Hence, there is need for sustained planning to help communities and the country in general to minimise the impact of such events. According to the World Bank (2010, p. 92), different cities in different regions of the world have had mixed successes in using urban planning as an effective tool for combating the impact of climate change. For instance, in a comparative study of three cities in the developing world (Alexandria, Casablanca and Tunis), it was noted that had these cities different success rates with regard to the role of urban planning in helping them mitigate the effects of climate change (World Bank 2010, p. 93). Whereas all the towns have sought to control the effects of urban planning which result from climate change by improving the drainage systems and controlling general settlement patterns, increased pollution of natural water supplies as well as pressure from real estate development has made all of them fail to fully develop appropriate planning systems to adapt to climate change (Simonis 2011, p. 923). In general, there is a growing need for cities to take responsibility of helping their populations adapt to or mitigate the effects of climate change. According to Hoonwerg et al. (2011, p. 263), this need is as a result of several factors that have shaped the way cities across the world are using planning as a tool to help them adapt to the effects of climate change. Using an approach that incorporates both local and regional governments, cities across the world are planning for mitigation of climate change effects by incorporating the agenda of climate change into their own institutions, allocating responsibilities to different sectors and encouraging collaboration and communication among the different stakeholders (Prasad et al. 2009, p. 6). According to Bulkeley et al. (2009, p. 19), the role of urban and regional planning in preparing cities for the climate change impacts can be seen in the form of the way two important factors are managed: development patterns and infrastructural development. As large populations settle in towns, increased economic growth results into an increase in the number of private vehicles in use. This contributes to increased carbon emission as a result of increases in population as well as economic growth in urban areas. On the other hand, a rise in the population increases the size of informal settlements within cities (UN 2004, p. 72). This creates a scenario in which there is increased emission of greenhouse gases which contribute to climate change. With increasing populations is the challenge of providing adequate infrastructural services to the population (McCarthy, Best & Betts 2010, p. 3). This leads to cities experiencing difficulties not only in providing infrastructure to the populations but also in making available low carbon sources of energy to the populations. From these observations, it can be seen that planning takes an important place in the efforts of cities and urban areas in general to mitigate the effects of climate change. Also, through urban planning, cities can be well prepared to counter the effects of climate change both in the present and in the future (Smith 2014). This is possible because of several reasons; the most important of them being that urban planning takes place at local levels and the other being the universality of the tools such as urban design and management which are used in urban planning (Smith 2014). As such, cities can successfully develop the right strategies to adapt to the effects of climate change in several ways as follows: by providing spatial expression to the way planning within a particular area is done; by developing an overall vision of how an area is meant to appear; and lastly, by providing guidance to developers and offering protection to special amenities (Mathews 2011, p. 7). Urban planning can also play a role in helping cities mitigate the impact of climate change by providing a means by which cities can reduce their overall production of heat and greenhouse gases. According to a research conducted by Bouyer et al. (2009, p. 3), cities are characterised by their unique climates and heat islands as a result of many factors, key among them being higher rates of solar absorption during the day and a lower rate of loss of infra red radiation as a result of high density. However, these effects can be effectively managed when cities adopt the right kind of planning for their buildings, infrastructure and other facilities. There are several case studies that have been conducted on how urban planning can be used as an effective tool in helping cities either mitigate or adapt to the effects of climate change. For instance, Polikowska (2009, p. 3), in a case study on Warsaw, identified how effective planning can be used to influence the way a city responds to the effects of climate change. According to this case study, the city of Warsaw has been influenced by climate change at a much higher rate as compared to other cities within the same region because of several factors. A high rate of emission of pollutants as well as emission of artificial heat has contributed to overall change of climate within the city. However, by adopting and implementing appropriate spatial planning systems for the urban areas, the city has managed to mitigate the effects of climate change over the years. One important strategy that has been instrumental in this process has been revitalisation of the urban green programme for the city over the years (Polikowska 2009, p. 10). For instance, provision of publicly accessible green parks within the city has intensified the conservation efforts of the local population, thus leading to mitigation of the effects of climate change. One city that has successfully managed to mitigate the effects of climate change as a result of using sound urban planning strategies is Melbourne. According to Wales et al. (2012, p. 11), the city faces a number of risks arising from the impact of climate change: an unprecedented rise in the sea level, extreme rise in temperature, intense rainfall in some areas and drought and reduced rainfall in others. These risks pose grave danger to the city as a whole in different ways. For instance, drought and reduced rainfall means that the agricultural sector of the city is at risk. Furthermore, an extreme rise in temperature will lead to sporadic and intense rainfall, which could result in damage to infrastructural installations within the city (Wales et al. 2012, p. 14). These effects are similar to the situation faced in the city of Toronto (TRCA 2012, p. 4). It is in light of these dangers that the governing authority of the city of Melbourne has adopted a comprehensive policy plan to mitigate the effects. In essence, the council of the city, through engagement with different stakeholders at both the local and national level, seeks to help the city prepare for the effects of climate change by doing a number of things as follows: (1) reducing the extent to which the city is vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change; (2) minimising the impact of the risks on the population; (3) getting rid of all human activity that is shown to contribute to climate change and relocating human and systems from places that are deemed highly vulnerable to climate change (Wales et al. 2012, p. 17). According to a report by the Planning & Climate Change Coalition (2012, p. 3), planning can be an important tool for use by local governments in combating the effects of climate change. This is because planning, which can be used at national, regional and local levels, can be used as a strategic response to the issues raised by climate change and, as a result, help communities and societies in general to reap social, environmental and economic benefits over the long-term (Planning & Climate Change Coalition 2012, p. 9). For this to be realised, local planning has to be done in such a manner that different aspects of climate change with regard to cities in particular and urban areas in general, are fully addressed. For instance, local planning can be used to ensure that urban areas have generally low carbon economies (Russell 2012, p. 26). Such a move can help communities to develop innovative methods of combating the effects of climate change in their local areas. Also, by using appropriate policies, local authorities can use planning tools to ensure that local areas use renewable energy and develop using low-carbon development approaches (Russell 2012, p. 34). From this, it can be seen that local areas can effectively use planning tools to ensure that the emission of greenhouse gases is kept at a bare minimum, encourage the use of renewable sources of energy and promote the development of appropriate infrastructure within the local areas. Such moves can be useful in helping communities to not only mitigate the impact of climate change but also adapt to some of results of the change. Therefore, cities can successfully adapt to the effects of climate change by adopting appropriate planning schemes for their development. This is possible if cities and local governments develop overall strategic plans which are supplemented by targets and goals for specific sectors. Further, when cities and local governments make use of the information that is available to them quite effectively, they can successfully plan for the effects of climate change and adapt to the changes already caused by the occurrence (Carmin, Roberts & Anguelovski 2009, p. 3). Effective use of information in this case entails making useful collaboration with the other stakeholders in the field such as non-governmental organisations and community-based organisations. This approach has been effective in different cities across the world, the most notable of them being Durban in South Africa which, until 2006, lacked a strategic approach to climate change practice. However, currently, as a result of several incentives and by the work of the Municipality’s Climate Protection Programme, Durban has managed to develop some of the most effective methods of planning for the reduction of the impact of climate change and adaptation to the changes occasioned by the phenomenon (Carmin et al. 2009, p. 6). The need for collaboration between different stakeholders in enhancing the role of urban and regional governments in planning for how to mitigate the effects of climate change has also been emphasised by Rodriguez (2009, p. 116) , who identified several ways in which this can be achieved. For instance, the role of urban planning in building local capacities for adaptation to climate change stands to benefit much when there is increased collaboration among the different stakeholders to the process (Rodriguez 2009, p. 117). Therefore, when such stakeholders collaborate with each other, the process of planning on how to handle the effects of climate change is enhanced as a result of wide-ranging knowledge from different areas such as scientific development, international debate and other disciplinary studies. Conclusion In this essay, it has been argued that planning plays an important role in helping cities get prepared for the effects of climate change. This happens in several ways. For instance, careful planning that integrates the input of different stakeholders is an important way of helping cities to mitigate or adapt to the effects of climate change. Further, it has been noted that it is extremely important for cities to adopt comprehensive polices as a way of getting prepared to tackle the effects of climate change. Such policies should be incorporated in the way the city plans for its infrastructural developments, population settlements and other physical development projects. As much as it is important for cities to collaborate with different stakeholders in planning on how to handle the effects of climate change, it has been argued that it is equally important that information from diverse quarters be used in drawing up such plans. This is because cities stand to gain a lot by making use of information from different stakeholders. Lastly, it has been pointed out that the important role that planning plays in helping cities to handle the effects of climate change is evident in a number of case studies across the world. Although there is a wide variation in the way cities across the world are vulnerable to climate change and how they respond to its effects, it has been seen that many cities have used spatial planning and other specific action plans to help their populations to either adapt to the effects of climate change or mitigate them. References Boswell, M R, Greve, A I & Seale, T L 2012, Local climate action planning, Island Press, New York. Bouyer, J, Musi, M, Huang, Y& Athamena, K 2009, ‘Mitigating urban heat island effect by urban design: forms and materials’, Paper Presented at the Fifth Urban Research Symposium, Marseille, France, Palais du Pharo, June 28-30, 2009, viewed 22 July 2014, Bulkeley, H 2013, Cities and climate change, Routledge, London. 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