The Tensions between the Purpose of Education and the Practice in Adult Education - Literature review Example

Name: Tutor: Title: The Tensions between the Purpose of Education and the Practice in Adult Education Course: Institution: Date: The Tensions between the Purpose of Education and the Practice in Adult Education Introduction There has been renewed interest throughout the world to push for vocational education and training (VET) since it promotes development of skills for improved productivity and sustainable competitiveness in the Global economy (Dasmani, 2011:67). Many countries have transformed their education system in the direction the world of work with specific focus on the acquisition of employable skills which have been continuously modified to be a more attractive, efficient and effective. Like in other countries, Australia has sought for VET that commensurate with market needs (Barnett and Ryan, 2005:89). Nonetheless, this has not been without challenges particularly revolving the many unresolved tensions and conflicts, some of which have persisted up the date. This paper aims at a critical examination of the contemporary contexts adult education and training, and analyzes the relationship between theory and practice in light of VET. It addressed two fundamental questions: First, what are the various tensions experienced by Australian VET teachers in public VET institutions as a result of market-based VET provision? Second, in what ways are the tensions negotiated? The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents a brief overview of the key concepts. Section 3 gives an exhaustive description of vocational training and explanations of key contemporary issues facing practitioners in the area of practice. The next section (4) suggests ways of reconciling the existing tension and the final section 5 presents conclusions drawn from the findings. Key Concepts Adult learning and education Adult learning and education has been defined as simply the provision of learning in the process and context that respond to the various needs of adult (Onyenemezu, 2012). It assists learners to be independent, establish self-reliance, building and reestablishing own lives in all spheres including their work, the family , community and social life in the modern world characterized by dynamic, fast changing cultures, societies as well as economies (Khodamoradi et al.,2012). It not only gives specific competences, but it also enhanced ones’ confidence, esteem, self identity and support (Hinzen, 2009:19). Adult education and learning can also be defined as in any form, based on the needs of the adult and geared towards the social, economical, and cultural improvement as well as empowering the person to be able to contribute favorably to his or her own society (Onyenemezu, 2012: 4). It revolves around efforts aimed at tackling the socioeconomic, cultural, political and environmental problems in many societies since adults are seen as the key occupants or players in the production sectors of various economies (Bozorgmanesh et al, 2012: 676). Specifically, it is designed to assist adults to live meaningfully as useful members of the society contributing to the general development (Fasokun, 2006). It is also aimed at offering in-service or vocational education in order to improve skills for various workers and professionals (Onyenemezu, 2012: 4). Marketization of VET Marketization or market based VET simply means privatization and involves the incorporation of market aspects/mechanism in the field of VET (Seddon, 2008). It entails one of the fundamental reforms in Australia which saw the shift from TAFEs that were basically extensions of state education departments to a free market where providers or institutions competed for not only government funding, but also for students (Karme, 2011). After 1974 and until the end of the 20th century, VET was delivered under the Technical and Further Education (TAFE) initiated by the Australia Committee on Technical and Further education (Evans, Haughey and Murrphy, 2008:186). Marketization was accompanied by various changes. Apart from the obvious competitive tendering for national funds whereby public and private VET providers had to struggle for the finances and for students. There was an introduction of a new model of a “user choice” or demand-driven system where the government changed its role from planning and funding of VET to market regulator to guarantee fair competition among key providers (Karme, 2011). There was also a shift in terms of curriculum and trainings from that formulated locally by the State to a more government recognized qualifications modeled on competency standards according to the state requirements. There is also increased participation of both educators and the industries in the establishing appropriate Training packages for the adult learner. In addition, it allowed various cultural resources, embodied by many of today’s teachers, which allowed manoeuvres around regulatory policies and consequently opened opportunities for teaching. Funding has opened up educational options that were otherwise unthinkable (Seddon, 2008:6). The market based system of VET was aimed at providing a wide range of choices, improved quality and efficiency as well as allowing easy access and equity (Kell, 2006). Unfortunately, the marketization of VET Australia has failed on various grounds (Hughes and Cairns, 2009). There are downsides in these reforms, especially impacts on teachers. The following is a description of the challenges. The impacts on VET teachers have been manifold. It has placed more emphasis on efficiency measures thus increasing pressure to compel downward labour costs, particularly through casualization (Seddon, 2008). There have been Cost-reductions from the government funding which can be attributed to the increased number of providers. Consequently, there has a downward pressure on teachers’ salaries, encouragement of fixed-term employees. They have also been forced to work long hours sometimes without adequate support systems. Furthermore, Teachers may also need to take extra responsibilities and human resource assignment for instance mentoring casually employed workers (Kell, 2006:21). In addition, there has been a tendency to narrow down the curriculum hence impacting extensively on teachers' control over curriculum decisions and teachers' ability to make professional judgments or decisions about the right pedagogies (Hughes and Cairns, 2009). Inherent Tensions in the Market Based VET There are a number of tensions that exists in the Market Based VET. For instance, there is unclear boundary between VET and other disciples. Teachers have to come to grips with the existing disharmony in the disciplinary fundamentals between human resources development (HRD) and that of adult learning and education (Hatcher and Bowles, 2006: 5). The blurred boundary between the two disciples is attributed to the fact that both aim at offering learning experiences for adults. HRD offers individual development with emphasis on performance enhancement related to his or her current job, career advancement associated with performance development for their future work assignments. It gives organizational development leading not only to maximum utilization of one’s potential but also better performance consequently facilitates the firm’s efficiency (Rocco and Smith, 2006: 3). This unclear definition may lead to low performance of teachers. Secondly, there is a perceived low standing and the diminished sense of occupational identity thus compromising VET teacher’s creativity and innovation (Buchanan & Briggs, 2004). Teachers tend to put a lot of focus on the competency-based training based on the needs of industries at the expense of their professional identities (Kell, 2006). The prevailing culture of ‘new managerialism’ and the preoccupation with ‘performative’ measures in VET have only overlaid new sets of identities and practices from the world of business. Although, the competency-based training and the employability skills linked to the new VET frameworks have enhanced achievement of market oriented needs and customized training, they have not only remained silent but have also undermined the professional identities of the adult literacy teachers (Seddon, 2008:4). Maintaining a professional identity, engaging in meaningful practice and professional learning as an adult literacy practitioner, is beset with tension. This is because there is a lack of a new space for adult literacy teachers to construct new identities and practices that it able to solve the various ambiguities and contradictions inherent in the current VET environment (Woodrow, 2009:52). Most of the adult literacy VET teachers have no clear subject area and are positioned somewhat ambiguously within the competitive ‘industry-led’ system. As a consequence, the expertise accumulated or professional development of adult literacy teachers in VET has been mostly sidelined. Casualisation of the workforce and a deregulated training environment has also disrupted a sense of professionalism within the adult literacy teaching field (Seddon, 2008). On the same vein, teachers also have to deal with esteem issue in their profession particularly between school and higher education. The standing and comparability of the courses offered for training VET training staff by comparison with those available-or required-in other sectors is quite an issue that teachers have to deal with this thus bringing much tension as they offer their services (Grollmann and Rauner, 2007:2). This has raised the question whether the professional practices teachers in the VET field are equivalent to other professions. There is a shift from critical focus on curriculum issues to emphasis on compliance with national audit frameworks such as the AQTF (Seddon, 2008). Consequently VET teachers have become de-skilled resulting from reduced requirements for degree-level VET teacher-training (Smith, 2010). To most people, VET seems to be inferior compared to other fields (Aryeetey, Doh and Andoh, 2011:6). Stevenson (2005), studying on VET in Australia, commented that VET is often seen as inferior in the hierarchy of knowledge and value, and that it is regarded as learning for those who failed in the elementary courses. He also argued that VET was developed in a paternalistic fashion with circumscribed degrees of freedom in terms of the content and process and that it is meant for industrial and other utilitarian terms as opposed to meaning making, preserved for low status occupations (Ibid: 336). The third tension revolves around the need to balance between the market requirement/needs and the pressure to abide by the Australian Quality Training Framework Standards while maintaining consistency of expected outcome. In addition teachers are faced with the challenge of trying to respond to the demands of meeting customer needs and the pressure to comply with Australian standards (Guthrie, Perkins & Nguyen 2006). Many teachers lack adequate skills to work competently and decisively with market based interests resulting too thin pedagogy and a narrowed focus on individual assessment and performance (Mulcahy, 2006: 259). This can be traced back in the initial stages of the VET which involved integration of Competency Based Training (CBT) with a need for teachers’ creativity and innovation however, this was overlooked. Consequently, the VET teachers were both technically and emotionally ill prepared for the new system with different knowledge and learning design role (Hughes and Cairns, 2009:7). Even though VET has been highly recognized, packages of competencies still seem complex and difficult for many teachers to understand especially when they are not properly trained. It is not a surprise that many teachers may still have to deal with such tension of incompetency especially in the critical use of the pedagogy since Teachers’ de-skilling leaves them without the power to argue the case (Buchanan & Briggs, 2004:10). Furthermore, in the rapidly changing nature of vocational work has hindered timely adjustment in developing learning that is both appropriate and sustainable, there has been limited guidance on emerging issues for both vocational teachers on what new approaches will enhance institutional vocational learning even in the realization that new pedagogies are vital in this changing vocational setting (Guthrie, 2010). The fourth point concerns the nature and practical aspects of competency standards which are also quite challenging where most teachers. They are forced to implement a curriculum they know very well lacks the basic components of learning process and education. As already observed, Market Based approaches entails Vocational Education and Training with a lot of emphasis on results/outcomes and skills as opposed to the process of learning and time taken to reach the specified degree of expertise (Evans, Haughey and Murrphy, 2008:190). In the market system, the ultimate question is whether an adult learner can do the job after having taught. This tends to impact negatively on both delivery and assessment, because VET teachers are uncertain about focusing more on knowledge versus performance (Smith, 2010). According to Chappell, competency Standards lack crucial attributes of theory and practice but modelled towards a technical-instrumental curriculum that concerns itself with narrowly defined and atomised task results (Chappell, 1996: 68). Most VET teachers are therefore faced with the problem of implementing a curriculum they know very well go against their own understanding of learning theory and ultimately missing the vital competent of the learning process and education. There is also significant tension between provision of technical skills and social skills among VET teachers. The focus on the need to meet competitive ‘markets’ have not considered the fact that economic activity and markets are the outcome of social activity that comprise of building of alliances , securing arrangements of mutual convenience among other things (Seddon, 2008). They are aware of this and therefore are in the dilemma of offering these skills. Key policy settings linked to marketisation of VET have not been able to establish environment for training with a broader social and community aim (Hughes and Cairns, 2009). Another tension is enhanced by the dualistic system of VET, that of Economic versus social mandates. Economic mandate is concerned with encouraging skills geared towards reducing the level of unemployment as a result of lack the skills needed in the labour market (Kell, 2006). On the other hand, the social objective of VET relates to ensuring equal access to education. Although there are some commonalities in the two mandates, there seem to be some conflicts (Seddon, 2008). For instance, if the government decides to support only one component, the other is deemed to fail. Another set of stress revolves around to the funding of Adult learning and Education as it relates to vocational training. This has really impacted negatively on the teachers' work. There is often inadequate financial planning (Ibid). In addition, the current and growing trend of decentralization in decision-making is not always matched by adequate financial allocations at all levels, or by an appropriate delegation of budgetary authority (Guthrie, Perkins & Nguyen, 2006). Adult learning and education in Vocational training have not featured strongly in the aid strategies of international organizations (Hinzen, 2009:22). Finally, there is also great conflict between the teachers’ main instruction/teaching and training program and the pressure from engaging in other income generating activities as well as administrative work (Guthrie, 2010:12). Many VET teachers have reported considerable tension between their core teaching and training activities and the pressure to become involved in other work functions such as revenue-raising and administrative tasks probably because of their reduced salaries (Stevenson, 2005). Apart from the limitations, there is the bright side of the reform. First of all, the teachers have been able to acquire or learn new skills, teaching designs and appropriate capabilities. This form of adjustment may be quite challenging and may take a lot of time but in the long run, it is quite rewarding. For instance, the new skills can not only improve teachers’ knowledge but also their general expertise. It may increase diversification allowing teachers to work in other learning institutions. Resolving the Conflicts In trying to solve some of the tension, the government of Australia for Vocational Education and Training (VET) has put a lot of efforts in crafting responses to rapidly changing environmental circumstances including globalization, skill shortages, and the imperatives of economic competition which have affected VET (Seddon, 2008). Nonetheless, the efforts are not enough. The tension which revolves around the unclear definition of VET and HRD, lack of precise understanding and potential benefit from the relationship between the two fields, can be reconciled or negotiated by reviewing the basic tenets of the critical theory which will then present a link between the two disciplines. However, efforts to understand and define the two disciplines should not underrate the need to complement each other a long some common interests and advantage from mutual relationship. The problem of duality of VET can be solved by pursuing both economic and social mandates valued against targeted criteria, and ensuring foundation and technical skill development are complementary methods to each other in gaining full advantage in terms of the benefits for individuals, enterprises and the community at large (Stevenson, 2005). Most Industries in Australia have welcomed the renewed examination of a role for foundation skills in the post-secondary education sector (Barnett and Ryan, 2005). The development of appropriate standards and associated resources and assessment tools, will facilitate the use of these skills to promote engagement with further work and training, while also improving attainment levels of technical skills. Although foundation skills will never replace the industry’s need for technical skills, the empowering nature of these skills for both individuals and society has far reaching benefits. These benefits can only be captured through effective measurement and valuation to ensure that all stakeholders in the training system can make informed decisions for achieving their goals and objectives (Guthrie, 2010). The introduction of the new system has been accompanied by an increasing call to have skills and knowledge relevant to the system (Mulcahy, 2006:259). Apart from the measurement and valuation, certificates and diplomas have been established which unfortunately has not been enough to encourage quality provision of VET which is often linked the status of educators (Pitman, Bell and Fyfe, 1999). Therefore, there is needed to consider registration of VET practice in a fashion similar to other professionals as well as revising the current entry points linked to training and credentials of VET teachers in order to improve the status and enhance the quality of service delivery (Stevenson, 2005). Lastly, there is also an urgent need to improve teacher’s confidence in the new system which requires a shared understanding among Teachers. If at all there is some uncertainty regarding the existence of shared understanding VET teachers then it is necessary to use existing VET quality assurance protocols. Conclusion This paper aimed at understanding the various contemporary issues facing adult education in the practice of VET. It explored the various tensions and conflicts encountered by the Australian VET teachers in public institutions with respect to market-based VET provision with appropriate suggestions for solving the above challenges. 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