Disability, Race and Multiple Discrimination - Literature review Example

Running Head: DISABILITY, RACE AND MULTIPLE DISCRIMINATION Disability, Race and Multiple Discrimination: Literature Review Introduction This literature review is based on evaluating the relationship between disability and race in general and how the concept of multiple discrimination can be used to explain the relationship between the two conceptions. The evaluation is based on a review of the findings of recent studies about the subject of the relationship between the concepts of race and disability in disability studies. In evaluating academic findings on the subject, the review is divided into three broad thematic sections as follows. In the first section, a brief evaluation of the findings of studies that have been carried out on the subject of disability is presented. This covers findings of different studies on the general aspects of disability as a social phenomenon. In the second section, a critical evaluation of the subject of race is presented. This is done in terms of tracing the relationship between race and disability within the academic literature of disability studies. Lastly, a brief evaluation of the academic findings on the subject of multiple discrimination is presented. Several ways in which the relationship between race and disability can be explained in terms of different aspects of multiple discrimination are evaluated. Disability, race and multiple discrimination Studies on the intersection of race, disability and discrimination in general have been focused on evaluating different ways in which these concepts interact with each other and the impact of the interaction on disabled persons. In current studies, the subject of disability has been understood in terms of the social model which is based on the separation of the concepts of impairment, handicap and the resultant disability (Barnes, Mercer & Shakespeare, 2010, p. 163). According to this model, disability, which is manifested in the form of different restrictions on individuals from performing optimum functions, is a result of the social and cultural factors created by the society. As a result, the society fails to take into account the different needs of disabled persons, thus creating problems of accessibility and usability. According to Barnes (2012), the social model of disability, which developed as a result of political and social factors, can be seen as a tool of understanding how the modern society is responsible for creating disability (p. 12). This is because there are wide variations in the way different cultures interpret the concept of disability (Stiniestra, 2002, p. 5). As a result of these variations, the approach in which disability is interpreted as different ways in which the lives of individuals having different forms of impairments are limited by prevailing social, economic and cultural environments has gained prominence in many disability studies. Although the concepts of race and disability appear as closely related social constructs, there are several distinctions between the two terms. For instance, whereas the concept of disability is used to symbolise a loss of a particular ability, race is a social construct that is generally used to connote inherent capacities or abilities (Hayman & Levit, 2002, p. 168). What this means is that whereas the concept of disability is used to signify a particular form of disadvantage that individuals are subjected to, the concept of race may not necessarily be used to signify a particular form of disadvantage that individuals are experiencing in the society. On the other hand, the interaction between different factors in determining how disabled persons experience discrimination in the society has been a central theme in many studies on disability. For instance, Blanchett, Klingner and Harry (2012), state that there is a complex interaction among the seemingly disparate factors of race, culture and language in influencing the level of discrimination that disabled persons are subjected to when accessing equitable education within the society (p. 1). This is due to the complex intersection of social, cultural and economic factors. In another study, Balcazar (2010) observes that disability has played a central role in determining the way individuals are segregated and discriminated against in the society (p. 3). In determining the extent of the effects of disability, it is observed that the effects of the concept are well experienced in relation to how it interacts with other aspects of human life such as gender, culture, religion and ethnicity. Also, Jarman (2011) observes that the relationship between race and disability in general (p. 9). It is observed that although race and gender issues have taken prominence in recent studies, their impact as source of discrimination against individuals is fully seen when they are examined in relation to different forms of disability. In the same vein, Stienstra (2002) identifies different ways in which the race, religion, language and heritage of disabled persons interact with their status to expose them to exacerbated forms of discrimination in the society (p. 2). This way, it can be seen that the lives of disabled persons in the society are shaped by their racial origin, ethnic group and religious status. The concept of discrimination in general has received academic attention to a considerable degree. In general, many studies have sought to not only develop a working definition of the concept of disability but have also sought to analyse the salient features and characteristics of the concept in relation to different social and economic aspects of human lives. From the foregoing, the impact of disability can be well evaluated when it is examined in relation to other aspects of human life. In acknowledgement of this, many studies have been conducted to evaluate the relationship between disability and other issues that are causes of discrimination against individuals in the society. A notable study is by Banton and Singh (2012), who in a study on the relationship between race, disability and overall oppression, identify several ways in which individuals of the black race are discriminated against in the society (p. 112). It is observed that such individuals face different forms of discrimination which arise from the existing stereotypes about race on one hand and those on disability on the other. As a result, black persons who are disabled face service and institutional discrimination first as a result of their race and secondly as a result of their disability. In the same vein, Newman (2012) observes that the subject of disability and race has been based on the experiences of African-American individuals within the context of their continued quest for identity. It can be seen that although many studies have sought to identify a relationship between race and disability in determining the extent to which disabled persons are exposed to different forms of discrimination, there still remains room for further studies on the role of specific factors in the interaction between the two concepts. Additionally, there has remained a gap in regard to the specific way in which race and disability interact with each other to determine the nature, form and extent of discrimination against disabled persons in the society. Although several concepts and theories have been developed to explain the link between the two phenomena, one common explanation that has gained increasing acceptance in disability studies is the concept of multiple discrimination. According to Uccellari (2008), multiple discrimination can be defined as a phenomenon in which a person is discriminated against on the basis of more than one ground (p. 24). This concept, which has its origin in the legislative provisions on the subject of discrimination and disability, has been used to expand claims against discrimination to cover all different grounds which include race, gender, nationality, religion and sexual orientation among others (Roseberry, 2011, p. 16). The idea that discrimination against disabled persons is compounded by the nature and origin of their races and ethnicity is not a new one. Several studies have sought to trace the compounding effect of racial prejudice on the level of discrimination that disabled persons face. For example, it has been observed that disabled persons who belong to racial and ethnic minority groups face a number of challenges which result from their minority nature and are exacerbated by this fact as compared to those faced by other disabled persons belonging to majority ethnic groups (Mereish, 2012, p. 53). These challenges are experienced in all aspects of their lives and are manifested in the form of lack of access to or discrimination when it comes to accessing social and economic services in the society. In the same vein, Pierce (2003) observes that although disabled persons have faced various forms of discrimination from the society in the form of sexism, heterosexism and ableism among others, the situation for disabled persons who are black has been much worse (p. 18). As a result of being subjected to systematic and purposeful forms of discrimination within the society, disabled persons who are black have been reduced to a minority group that exists within a minority. What this means is that as a result of the interaction between disability and race, disabled individuals who also happen to belong to minority racial groups have been subjected to double discrimination within the society. Therefore, although their disability is a result of the failure of the society to take care of their needs, disabled persons belonging to minority racial groups are segregated against and made to believe that their status is a result of their own inherent failings (Singh, 2005, p. 4). The concept of multiple discrimination and its application to the relationship between race and disability can be understood in different ways. For example, Hudson (2012) analysed the concept based on the provisions of different theories of additive, ordinary and intersectional multiple discrimination (p. 3). The author observes that the concept of multiple discrimination assumes different perspectives when interpreted in terms of any of the three theories. On the other hand, studies on the role of multiple discrimination in influencing the nature and form of discrimination against disabled persons have been based on several different approaches. For instance, Sheppard (2011), in a study to determine the influence of multiple discrimination at the place of work on the workers, identifies different ways in which this form of discrimination has affected workers (p. 2). Sheppard contends that that individuals facing discrimination at the place of work are confronted by this issue from different other sources as opposed to a single one. Moreover, the subject of multiple discrimination has also received attention in the field of healthcare. For instance, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights recognises the need for legal provisions as a way of protecting individuals from both additive and intersectional forms of multiple discrimination (FRA, 2012, p. 2). These efforts are in line with the general trend in which multiple discrimination is seen as a concept that relates not only to disabled black women as it has been the norm, but to other groups of disabled persons also (Degener, 2013, p. 45). Conclusion From the foregoing, it can be seen that the complex interaction between disability and race on one hand and discrimination on the other can be understood in terms of the concept of multiple discrimination. Although there have been a number of studies that have been carried out on the subjects of race and disability in general, the issue of multiple discrimination and how it influences the nature, form and extent of discrimination against disabled persons has remained largely unexplored. From the few studies that have been carried out on the subject, it can be seen that different aspects of multiple discrimination: intersectional, compound and additive, play a key role in exacerbating discrimination against disabled persons in the society. Therefore, there seems to be a consensus among researchers that the lives and experiences of disabled persons are shaped by their cultural, religious and ethnic background. The interaction of these factors in determining the extent to which disabled persons from particular races are discriminated against can be understood in terms of the concept of multiple discrimination. References Balcazar, F. (2010). 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Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, Research Paper. Retrieved from http://www.acas.org.uk/media/pdf/0/3/0112_Multidiscrim_Hudson-accessible-version-Apr-2012.pdf Jarman, M. (2011). Coming up from underground: Uneasy dialogues at the intersections of race, mental illness and disability studies. In C. M. Bell (eds), Blackness and disability: Critical examinations and cultural interventions (pp. 9-30). Michigan: Michigan State University Press. Mereish, E. H. (2012). The intersectional invisibility of race and disability status: An exploratory study of health and discrimination facing Asian Americans with disabilities.’ Ethnicity and Inequality in Health and Social Care, 5(2), 51-60. Newman, A. P. (2012). Introducing black disability studies: A modest beginning. Retrieved from http://dsq-sds.org/article/view/3285/3119 Pierce, M. (2003). Minority ethnic people with disabilities in Ireland: situation, identity and experience. 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Multiple discrimination: How law can reflect reality. The Equal Rights Review, 1, 24- 49. Retrieved from http://www.equalrightstrust.org/ertdocumentbank/Multiple%20Discrimination.pdf Read More