The Efficacy of Cognitive, Behavioural and Social Methodologies in Child Development - Coursework Example

Child development has been a constantly active and intriguing area of psychology, based on three main approaches. While all three have contributed to findings and theories of child development, each has its own strengths and weaknesses, and each in turn have similarities and differences with one another. In turn, each is somewhat different in its approach to child development, in terms of experimentation methodology; hence each has a varied theory on how, and under which conditions children develop. It is important to evaluate the research methods used for each approach, in terms of both weaknesses and strengths. However, it is also equally important to approach this issue with a realistic outlook. Indeed ‘it is not possible to study all the factors that influence development…and so it has been necessary to design research methods which allow sources of error in observation to be controlled.’1 The cognitive approach to psychology focuses on the internal processes of the brain; how children develop and grow is through mental interaction and the processing of information of the world around them. This growth is attributed to intelligence, to thought and how thought processes influence the way in which one perceives and interacts with the world. The leading psychologist in this area is Piaget, who believed that children are not ‘less intelligent’ than adults, they merely process thoughts differently. He broke down the child development process into four main stages. Piaget asserted that children react to ‘cognitive lessons’, which allows them to adapt to the environment in which they live through schemata. These schemata are the knowledge collected through experiences, which are then logically processed to develop the child’s understanding of the world. These stages are applicable regardless of culture or individuality and represent the abilities and developments of the child during the specific age period – they are universal to Piaget. The cognitive approach to psychology is often described as scientific and clinical in comparison to the social and behavioural approaches. Literally described from the cognitive viewpoint, the mind consists of the processes of the brain and its functioning of memory, perception and understanding of the world. Research tends to be quantitative, and data is often reduced to models of processes and statistical information, much like Piaget’s stages and Bruner’s modes of representation, categorising the ways in which memory can be programmed into the mind. The clinical research method of cognitive theory is based on children being set a series of tasks and/or asked certain questions. The experiment is often tailored to the child, depending on the answer given or the reaction to the task; there is no set protocol as that which is used in contemporary behavioural research. Experimental research, conducted under controlled conditions focuses on the scientific method of psychological experimentation. A specific hypothesis or the more lax relational approach is adopted, and allows researchers to establish causal relationships between behavioural aspects and the environment. Variables can be controlled and purposely varied much more accurately than in a case study or social investigation, so results are likely to be accurate. However, the experiments are conducted in the laboratory, which can affect subject behaviour; for example, a child may act differently when in an unusual environment than he would in a familiar one. This does weaken the quality of results. Piaget’s research was based mainly on case studies, which described the circumstances of a particular child or subject. His research method has been fuel for much criticism. Although case studies provide in-depth, qualitative information, they tend to be rather exclusive. Indeed, Piaget’s subjects were mainly limited to a small, unrepresentative sample and this makes it extremely difficult to generalise his research over a broader group. Indeed, Freud was rather fond of recording in-depth circumstances of his subjects. Again, this is deemed to be extremely useful in respect of the detail that can be obtained, but the few subjects studied cannot be realistic of larger, varied groups. The behavioural approach views behaviour and child development as an externally describable and observational process rather than attributable to internal factors. It concerns the much-debated nature-nurture debate, as to whether behavioural development is a result of internal processes irrespective of external, environmental factors, or whether the latter is dominant in shaping behaviour. For the behaviourist, child development is affected and shaped by the environment in which one resides rather than internally existing stages of development. Highly observational, data as to how children develop is derived purely through observation of behaviour – ultimately for the behavioural psychologist, there is no difference between external actions and internal thoughts.2 This approach is often criticised for being somewhat objective and highly observatory, and ignores the often subjectively internal thought processes behind the external behaviour, although psychologists such as Skinner did delve beyond the purely external. Indeed, Skinner did class some internal processes as scientifically valid, although such internal elements were never treated as causative of behaviour.3 Ultimately, for behaviouralists, only external stimuli are classed as effective on child development and behaviour. Behaviour is observed while external variables are controlled to obtain an understanding of how these external variables, when controlled, can affect or change ones behaviour. This mode of experimentation and study has produced many findings on how the environment can affect child development. Pavlov’s investigation of classical conditioning ascertained that external conditions and stimuli can affect and change ones behaviour, through association. However, the use of animal observation when conducting research is questionable in relation to how different (or similar) they are to humans. While Pavlov did not conduct research relating to child development per se, classical conditioning has been applied to contexts such as punishment and reward for children’s behaviour. Similarly, operant conditioning can affect behaviour in that children learn the natural consequences of an action through experience. Through reinforcement, these external stimuli affect future behaviour, based on previous experience of the same form of behaviour, depending on the consequences. By reinforcing a certain type of behaviour with a positive or negative reaction, the specific behaviour can thus be alleviated or encouraged – the external consequences of actions affect how we behave. As children develop, they respond to external consequences of their reactions, rather than the internal developmental stages proposed by cognitive psychologists. Ultimately, child development is achieved through learning; it is not already internally existent. Such observation of behaviour, when conducted in natural settings, can often be highly accurate, but as has already been stated in relation to specific case studies, does not tend to be generalised. Behaviourism does have its strengths; it is based primarily upon observable behaviour, making it much easier to confirm and process into specific data than the cognitive approach. However, the tendency to view man as an animal has led to much research being conducted only on animals,4 the linkage of which between the two is questionable. Behavioural psychology could also be criticised as rather exclusive, or ‘narrow-minded’; internal development such as emotion and thought has been thrown to the sidelines, which seems to weaken considerably the depth of the behavioural approach. To observe only external behaviour and ignore the possible deeper reasoning and influences behind it leaves this approach rather one-dimensional. Cognitive theorists have found that development and learning can occur through methods other than purely reinforcement or punishment from external sources. The environment expressed as the key element fails to appreciate the possibility that humans have an internal quality – the actual element that responds to the environment. Can it really be said with much creditability in today’s society that physical behaviour is the ultimate factor of child development and human behaviour? Social psychology is a type of ‘middle-ground’ between cognitive and behavioural psychology. Scientific methods are used "to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings".5 Social psychology operates on a broader spectrum; behaviour is assessed in relation to wider social groups as well as on an individualistic basis. Individuals’ behaviour, according to the social psychologist, is affected by ones position in society, based on culture, societal circumstances, class differences and geographical contexts. The interrelation between sociological as well as psychological factors is assessed; the social approach is a kind of hybrid approach when compared to the cognitive and behavioural approaches. Social psychologists conduct broader-reaching research; assessments are rarely confined to the laboratory. The longitudinal research method assesses changes in one single group over a certain period of time. This is obviously highly effective for child development studies, as following a subject over a period of many years, or even a lifetime can provide effective results. Development from birth through to death can be recorded, in relation to experiences and circumstances. However, such studies are somewhat less effective that one would primarily consider; individuals often drop-out of the study, and differences in personality characteristics between individual subjects are hard to monitor and thus attribute to findings. Although findings are often secure and rather revelatory, this method can be time consuming and variables are difficult to control. However, such studies do allow the examination of interactional traits between group members or even between groups. Generally, the individual is focused on, but within the context of the broader social group; surveys and sampling allow constant updates and equally-spaced gathering of information which is accurate and concise. In comparison, cross-sectional studies are conducted at one point in time; groups of different ages are observed and compared to collect research on child development. Specific traits, behavioural characteristics and thought processes can be obtained and can provide an accurate and effective account of child development. The research method is not as time-consuming as the longitudinal method, and there is no issue of subjects dropping out. In relation to child development, social psychology can play an important role in assessing how the child views his position in the world and how the world places him. Socialists maintain that the broader social context plays a largely influential role in the development and perception of the individual, and vice versa. The attachment theory, coined by Bowlby provides a useful example and method for assessing how humans interact on a social level, especially in relation to child development. Bowlby found that children become attached to certain adults whom they engage in social interaction with. They use this attachment as a base from which they venture, and this attachment will often guide the child’s future social behaviour.6 Such research has also shown that social and development requires such secure relationships between child and carer, in order for a normal development to occur. Similarly, the type of relationship experienced also affects the child’s future societal behaviour. When researching child development, it must be remembered that children cannot be assessed or used as subjects in the same that adults can. This has a rather important effect on the results achieved, and calls into play the role of ethical considerations, based on influential research and over-intrusive methods. The longitudinal approach can be highly effective in researching a specific birth-group’s developmental stages; it can also provide information on how individuals develop differently within the same group and for which reasons. While cross-sectional studies can also be representative and resist the possible historical confinement of the longitudinal study, it is not possible to study the changes in individuals of the group – these may not be as a result of age, but for other factors not relevant to child development. Furthermore, such correlational studies are not useful for providing causative information, unlike experimental studies. The cognitive psychologist’s primary focus on the internal thought processes causes clinical studies to be primarily adopted. As has already been stated, these are more controlled but tend to lose effectiveness if conducted in the artificial laboratory surroundings. However, findings and theories such as Piaget’s stages of child development have proven to provide much basis for following research methods and progress. In turn, behavioural psychology has some strength in adopting the arguably logical approach that observable behaviour is primarily relevant and which can be changed by purely external environmental factors. By basing research on observable behaviour, one can escape the uncertainty of subjective thought analysis, which can fall victim to misunderstanding or misinterpretation, especially in the context of child development. Observational research, in the context of ethical consideration, can be the least intrusive, and if conducted in the subject’s natural surroundings can yield accurate results. Studies conducted in the laboratory are generally likely to affect child behaviour; they are not as likely to act naturally in strange surrounding. The nature-nurture debate burns fiercely here; whether external or internal factors affect and shape child development cannot be fully answered unless the most effective research methods are adopted. While all three psychological approaches are fundamentally different, the research methods used tend to overlap and can often be used in more than one psychological approach. Indeed, the social psychology method appears to be a beautifully conducted unison of both the cognitive and behavioural approaches – it brings both external and internal factors into the arena. Indeed, much contribution to child development has resulted from the social approach. In this area, research methods can be incorporated from both the clinical and observational aspects – the opportunity for maximum efficacy is hard to ignore or indeed rebut here. It seems that the research will continue, and methods will continue to be updated and improved in a bid to achieve the most accurate and efficacious results. In the meantime, one must not overlook the vast progression in the study of child development that has already been achieved. Bibliography Allport, G. [1985] The Historical Background of Social Psychology. Handbook of Social Psychology. Bretherton, I. & Munholland, K. (1999). Internal Working Models in Attachment Relationships: A Construct Revisited. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications. Ed. Cassidy J, Shaver PR. Guilford Press. 89–114 Bruner, J. (1966). Studies in cognitive growth: A collaboration at the Center for Cognitive Studies. New York: Wiley & Sons. Butterworth,G. & Harris,M. (1994). Principles of Developmental Psychology. Hove: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Dewey, J. (1997). How we think. New York: Dover Publications. Fraley, L. (2001). Strategic Interdisciplinary Relations Between a Natural Science Community and a Psychology Community. The Behaviour Analyst Today 2(4): 209-324. Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts. Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1990). The childs conception of the world. New York: Littlefield Adams. Skinner, B. (1984). The Operational Analysis of Psychological Terms. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 7(4): 547-581. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Boston: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L., & Vygotsky, S. (1980). Mind in society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Read More