Premodern Indian History - Essay Example

Topic: Lecturer: Presentation: Introduction Taxila or the old Indian Takshacila was the capital of the ancient eastern Punjab, a country located between the two rivers; Indus and Hydaspes. It is believed that it was first established in the sixth to seventh century BC according to a legend by the son of the brother of the hero Roma (Aldrovandi, 5). The land is believed to be the best known site for archeological expeditions in Pakistan. As (Aldrovandi, 6) further explains ‘Taxila had also been a great religious centre. In this regard it yielded a good number of sacred places of various religions of which Buddhism was certainly the most predominant’. Taxila commanded the royal road which is the modern Kabul, formerly the valley of river Cophen connecting Gandhara to the kingdom of Magadha in the east. The Taxila town also commanded the Kashmir river valley up to the Indian Ocean in the south (Xinru, 21). Considering the command areas the Taxila held, it is believed that they also had rules over the land between Babylonia in the west and China in The East. During this ancient period, there was the Greek, Achaemenid and Kushan ages. In the Kushan age there were Sirsukh, Jaulian and the Mohra Moradu tribes (Edwin, 4). This paper will explain the establishment of the Kushans Empire and their numerous social, religious, economic and political engagements in the ancient Asian history. The Taxila Kushans In the early days, the Kushans were mainly nomads who belonged to the Yuezhi clan residing on the grasslands of the eastern Tarim Basin region, in present-day Gansu province in China (Xinru, 19). The Yuezhi tribe was believed to be comprised of jade and horse traders who moved with their herd guarded by an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 military men. They were forcefully evicted from their original residence by the stronger Xiongnu tribe. Reports claim that they first migrated west and then south to Transoxiana a region north of Oxus River which is today referred to as Amu Darua (Xinru, 10). They further migrated to the Bactria region in the northern part of India. The Kushans of the Yuezhi clan were notably dominant creating a supreme rule over others tribes (William, 11). In the 1st century AD in the territories of ancient Bactria on both sides of the middle course of Oxus, the Kushans Empire under the leadership of king Kujula Kadphises was originally established after a successful invasion and control of the Bactria region. This was favored by the then existing rivalry between the Parthians and the scytho-Parthians (Xinru, 12). Through his enormous troops of military men, King Kujula Kadphises comfortably took control of the southern prosperous region which is the northwest part of ancient India traditionally known as Gandhara. Reports suggest that he rued the empire up to the year78 AD. On his death his able son Vima Taktu succeeded him and expanded the kingdom further in to the northwest part of south Asia. He later appointed and installed generals to these lands who were to exert the Kushan rule on the inhabitants (Smith, 45). Kujula Kadphises grandson Vima Kadphises took the helm of leadership after the death of his father in 95. He is credited with the greatest expansion of the Kushan Empire by acquiring vast lands that were to fall under the Kushan control. Reports claim that he expanded the lands to Afghanistan and North West India. Due to the empire expansion, some Kushans later relocated and settled in central Afghanistan and the northwest of the Indian subcontinent up to the lands of Saketa and Sarnath which are found on the Varanasi or Banares areas. It is also reported that they held diplomatic relations with the Han of China, the Roman Empire and also the Sassanid Persia. During his reign, the Kushans are believed to have acquired a lot of wealth due to the connections and control they had over the Silk Road (Edwin, 24). His successor Kanishka 1 continued with the rule with records crediting him for his territorial administration from two capitals: Purushapura which is now Peshawar in northwestern Pakistan and Mathura, in northern India. He is also credited along with Raja Dab for building the massive, ancient Fort at Bathinda also called Qila Mubarak, in the modern city of Bathinda, Indian Punjab (Smith, 14). Also, as described by Christian ‘Kanishka was a supporter of arts who embraced ideas from the many peoples of his region. He also helped bring about a new era of sculpture that combined Buddhist themes with representational approaches adopted from other cultures, particularly the Roman Empire’ (59). The Kushan communities and territories underwent several kings who succeeded their fathers and family members. Vasishka succeded Kanishka and after 20 years of rule he was succeeded by Huvishka. Vasishka was the king who led the Kushan Empire for the shortest time ever recorded. Reports suggest that Huvishka’s rule lasted an estimated 20-30 years. He was credited for his at most commitment to consolidation and retrenchment of the empire that had been established by his fore fathers. He is also credited with the modeling the Buddha Amitabha statue which had inscription ‘the 28th year of the reign of Huvishka’ (Smith, 31). Huvishka was succeded by his son Vasudeva I who is the last recorded king of the Kushan Empire. His name Vasudeva was similar to that of the father of Krishna a Hindu god. This was the first time a Kushan leader was given a Hindu name. He is later reported to have converted to Hinduism. He is also believed to have had connections to Christianity with reports suggesting that he had returned relics of Apostle St. Thomas from Mylapore India. Moreover, it is reported that the successors of Kanishka referred themselves with the title ‘sons of god’ who ruled Aryavarta, the India (Yu, 103). In addition, it was reported that Vasudeva had been paying tribute to the Chinese emperor Cao Rui after the Chinese retreated from central Asia with Vasudeva reportedly gaining command. Up to the decline of the Empire, the Kanishka successors were credited for uniting and strengthening the Kushan territories. The Taxila Kushans living in Gandhara comprised of a multi-ethnic blend of many cultures and religions including Buddhism. Due to the location of Gandhara, the Greeks, Persian and Indian among many other influences greatly impacted the social cultural aspects of the Kushans. It was under the Kushan rule that the Gandhara art developed and flourished (Smith, 29). Reflections and Greek Mythologies were dominantly featured in the Buddhism figures during this time. As Mathur states ‘the first depictions of Buddha in human form were made by artists of Kushan Gandhara, as were the first depictions of bodhisattvas’ (71). The great leader Kanishka I was credited with great patronage to Buddhism with record stating that he built the great Stupa in Peshawar, which is believed to have had a diameter of 286 feet and was 690 feet tall covered with jewels (Smith, 59). The original Kushans were believed to be gowned in stiff leather dresses but later adopted the Hellenistic culture of Bactria and took the Greek alphabet to suit their language needs. The Gandharan art was even infiltrated by the western culture further explaining the ability of the Kushans to coin culture from others. As Mathur reports, ‘Several direct depictions of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they are represented with a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya’ (80). The population structure of the Kushan was quite diverse; it ranged from small villages and towns, to cities and mountain communities (Christian, 94). The land in the small villages and towns was owned mostly by the elites, while city land was mostly owned by merchants. As recorded by Mathur ‘The Kushans were a restless nomadic community that devoured the vast lands of the Indian sub continent conquering towns and cities to establish a wider rule’ (97). Reports also have been made that the Kushans also had great influence from the Ganges valley to the Gobi desert. This was due to the great leadership of the then emperor Kadphises. Due to their vast and enormous journeys across the lands, the Kushans were a great movement which attracted businessmen, politicians and travelers to their lands. During this era, the Kushans were believed to associate with the Chinese, the Greeks and the Romans. They are also believed to have traded gems, spices and silk ware with other nomadic traders of the Indian sub-continent (Liu, 31). With their numerous interactions with the Romans, the Kushans through their king Vima Kadphises introduced the coinage system which was similar to the Roman Aureus but was made of gold instead of the copper coinage that was earlier established. It is reported that the Kushans may have controlled the silk trade as a government monopoly, possibly from Bergram (Liu, 40). During this period, some reports suggest that the Kushans had requested Trajan a roman leader to supply them with gold in return for good trading grounds with the eastern merchants. The reports suggest further that during the second Dacian war Trajan had acquired over 50000 pounds of gold and a double of that amount in silver collections. These were later believed to have found themselves in the Kushan territories further bringing more civilization and wealth. Further claims have also been made that the Kushans also traded silks, spices, gems and dyestuffs in return for Roman gold coins (William, 86). With respect to their involvement with the Chinese between the first and second century AD the Kushans expanded their military towards the north and occupied Tarim Basin which was their place of their origin (Rene, 54). This was crucial for the Kushans since they would now be situated at the centre of the Central Asian commerce with the Roman Empire. Moreover, they had relations with the Chinese military especially under the Han Dynasty in the 84 where they collaborated to conquer the Sogdians (Edwin, 48). They also aided in the attack of Turpan on the eastern side of the Tarim basin. In response to the help offered the Kushans asked for the Emperor’s daughter, a request that was not fulfilled even after presenting gifts to the Chinese court (Rene, 59). This attracted rivalry between the two empires. The Kushans retaliated by bringing a total of 70,000 soldiers on the Ban Chao land but were defeated by a smaller military group of the Chinese. On sight of the steep defeat, the Kushans retreated and paid tribute to the emperor Han He; between the years 86 to106. It is reported that around the year 116, the Kushans captured Khotan and Yarkand, Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin and established a kingdom in Kashgar making it its central operations and administration center (Liu, 110). Moreover, the Kushans have been credited with the introduction of the Brahmi script, the Indian Prakrit and expanded the Greco-Buddhist art which developed into the Serindian art. Further relations have also been reported to take place with the Kushan ruler sending gifts to the then Chinese Emperor Han Huan (Yu, 99). Due to these relations, the diverse cultural differences started infiltrating to the other communities. Further reports also explain that the divine rulers made use of imagery in order to attempt to assimilate all of the different cultures into one distinct society (Aldrovandi, 105). Further interactions with other communities led to the introduction of the Buddhism religion. The leaders accepted it and incorporated it into their religion; Claims by Liu explain that ‘Buddhism was preferred by the kings because they believed that Buddhist propaganda and the patronage would help in political and religious areas’ (112). Development and spread of the Buddhism religion was favored by the acceptance it received from the Kushans. Further reports explain that the Kushans also established a devolved religious structure of teachers, preachers and even missionaries (Edwin, 79). As stated by Edwin ‘Buddhist monks from the region of Gandhara during Kanishika's lifetime played a key role in the development and the transmission of Buddhist ideas from India and Gandhara to China’ (70). It is reported that the famous Lokaksema, one of the Buddhist missionaries became Chinese’s greatest translators mainly located around the Nanjing and Loyang. These missionaries are also credited with the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism with records stating that they greatly promoted the Hinayana and Mahayana Scriptures in China. This was due to the translation of these scriptures into Chinese language by the Buddhist missionaries (John, 200). In addition, the Kushans also gained economic prosperity through the various trading they held with the Chinese and Roman. Through the establishment the Silk Road which was the major trading route of the Chinese, Indians, Romans and Parthian traders, the Kushans amassed a lot of wealth and became one of the most powerful empires of the Indian subcontinent (Yu, 121). Further, they engaged in agricultural activities which they learnt from the Chinese and Parthian traders. It was also explained that Cereals, cotton, fruits and poppies were the different types of crops that grew using the water from this system (Christian, 129). It is also reported that they grew spices and vegetables, and traded horses with their neighboring communities and foreigners. After a great territorial expansion, trade improvement and increased civilization in the Kushan Empire its dominance in the Indian sub continent was compromised. This was after the death of their king Vasudeva I in 225. The empire was divided into two halves; the western and the eastern halves. On one hand as reported by John, ‘Western Kushans in Afghanistan were soon subjugated by the Persian Sassanid Empire and lost Bactria and other territories’ (200). This was later aggravated by the defeat they suffered after the Persians who deposed the western rule and replacing it with the Persian Vassals known as Indo-Sassanids or later called Kushanshas. On the other hand in 270 the eastern ruled Kushan territories were under attack by the Yaudheyas and other local tribes who established their dynasties. Later as suggested by David ‘In the mid 4th century they were subjugated by the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta’ (147). This was the end of the Kushan dominance in the Indian sub-continent. Conclusion The Taxila Kushans were a nomadic community originally from the highlands of China and migrated to the Indian sub-continent in search of better lands. From their leader Kujula Kadphises to their last leader Vasudeva I, they exerted their dominant rule over their neighboring communities to establish a great empire. It has also been noted that the Kushans also controlled the vibrant trade that existed between the Chinese, the Romans and the other Traders who traversed through the Silk Road. They amassed great wealth and recognition with reports claiming that they had close ties with the Chinese and Romans. Through their encounter with the Romans, they embraced the coinage system of trade with King Kanishka being credited with the introduction of the gold coins in the Kushan market as opposed to the initial copper coins. It is evident that the Kushan Empire through their king Kanishka introduced Buddhism to the eastern Asian continent. It was also reported that through their interactions with the Chinese, the Kushans expanded and spread the Buddhist religion to the far lands from India to China. Eventually the Kushan Empire collapsed due to the weak ties the people had after the splitting to the eastern and western kingdoms. References Aldrovandi C. Buddhism, Pax Kushava and Greco-Toman Motifs: Pattern And Purpose in Gandharan Iconography. Sao Paulo: Antiquity. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2005. David C. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Malden: Distributers, 1998 Edwin. B. E. The Wu-san and Sakas and the Yeuh-chih Migration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. John E. H. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Book Surge Publishing, 2009. Liu X. Migration and settlement of Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependent of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies. University of Hawaii Press. 2001. Rene G. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press, 1970. Smith V. The Early History of India. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers 1999. William H. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume 6. New York: Trubner & Co., 1886. Xinru L. The Silk Road in World History. New Oxford World History, 2010. Yu T. A study of Saka history. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. 1998. Read More