The Evolution of Religion: From Antiquity to Modernity - Term Paper Example

?The Evolution of Religion: From Antiquity to Modernity Introduction A number of thinkers and historians have emphasised the major role that specifichistorical periods have played in forming worldviews, political systems, or strategies which were to govern the centre of the next historical period before being, subsequently, challenged, then overthrown, or changed and merged into new schemes. According to Karl Jaspers (1954), “Man seems to have started again from scratch four times” (p. 37-38): with the Neolithic period, with the ancient civilisations, with the rise of kingdoms and empires, and with the modern period. Each of these historical periods created a major reformation of the ‘symbolic field’ and a large-scale religious uproar which resulted in appearances, reshaping, and disappearances (Hamilton 2001). Each period ultimately resulted in new religious arrangements in the following order: (1) oral religions, (2) ancient religions, (3) universalist religions, and (4) modern transformations (Thomas 2005). Only Hinduism and Judaism, among the ancient religions, survived the earlier period, although vastly transformed and preserving generally pre-universalist features: numerous restrictions or taboos, major domestic sacraments, rites of passage (Melton 1998). We could say that modernity also represents a great challenge to time-honoured religions and a possible spring of religious innovation, particularly if it is on the point of being revolutionised and generalised, as claimed by Giddens. Furthermore, the theory of modernity as a new historical period encourages us to take into account especially long-term influences; this allows us to conduct comparative studies, and introduces a knowledge explaining not just the fall of religion, but also for restorations, transformations, and creations. The objective of this essay is to discuss the different arguments that have been expressed regarding the influences of modernity on religion and the changes that are happening in religion. This essay will not try to connect these assumptions in a methodical manner. The Historical Development of Religion As argued by Gordon Melton (1998): ... [D]uring the twentieth century, the West has experienced a phenomenon it has not encountered since the reign of Constantine: the growth of and significant visible presence of a variety of non-Christian and non-orthodox Christian bodies competing for the religious allegiance of the public. This growth of so many religious alternatives is forcing the West into a new situation in which the still dominant Christian religion must share its centuries-old hegemony in a new pluralistic religious environment (p. 79). Apparently, according to Thomas (2005), no new global spirituality or world religion has diffused on a massive scale, and thus far, the most evident innovation of the modern symbolic milieu has been the progeny of secular ideas and perspectives, such as human rights, ethics, ideologies, science, etc.). Nonetheless, humanity has also witnessed deep-seated transformations in the religious setting, and we could be in a growing stage of evolution. The main question hence is what we discover from the global studies of the modern period as a new phase in humanity’s religious history or from studies regarding the challenge of modernity to religion in general? Jaspers (1954) limited his answer to concise but substantial insights: “If a transcendent aid does manifest itself” (ibid: p. 52), he envisaged an accomplished modernity, “it can only be to free a man and by virtue of his autonomy, (Jaspers 1954: 52)” because “he that feels free lets his beliefs fluctuate, regardless of any clearly defined credo... in accordance with an unfettered faith, which escapes any specific definition, which remains unattached while retaining the sense of the absolute and seriousness, along with their strong vitality” (ibid: pp. 52-53). Jaspers (1954) furthers, this faith remains insignificant to the eyes of the masses and is resented by the representatives of the dogmatic and formal credos. However, it is possible, therefore, that the major religion will revitalise and undertake transformations. Hence Jaspers underlines the determination to be free, which complements quite well the current assumptions on ‘individualisation’, but it is a remarkable envision as well about evangelism and ‘fundamentalism’. Joseph Kitagawa (1967) stresses three connected typical attributes: individual as the centre, ‘this-worldly soteriology’, and ‘the search for freedom’ (ibid: p. 104). He particularly argues that all ancient religions had a tendency to adopt negative outlooks toward extraordinary presence and believed in another dimension of reality which was the fundamental, and that, individuals were educated to be prisoners or voyagers, looking for nirvana which would save them from finitude, sin, and suffering. According to Hamilton (2001), a far-reaching transformation has occurred in relation to this in the belief of modern humanity, in that they now refrain from believing the presence of another dimension of reality. Undeniably, they still make use of terms like Nirvana, heaven, paradise, and the Kingdom of God. These expressions, according to Asad (2003), have mere symbolic significance for the modern thinking. Religions today are forced to find the essence of human fate in this world in order to satisfy the human craft which implies soteriotogies concentrated on this dimension of reality. As Bellah (1976) argues, “the central feature of the change is the collapse of the dualism that was so crucial to all the historic religions... There is simply no room for a hierarchic dualistic religious symbol system of the classical historic type. This is not to be interpreted as a return to primitive monism: it is not that a single world has replaced a double one but than an infinitely multiplex one has replaced the simple duplex structure...” (ibid: pp. 39-44) The dualistic perspective, according to Aldridge (2007), definitely persevere in the belief of numerous of the pious, but just as certainly numerous others have created complex and usually pseudo-scientific explanations to carry their faith in its knowledgeable reliability into some form of intellectual agreement with the modern world. This, according to Aldridge (2007), is because of the concepts of individualisation and science, which shrink the gap between the clergy and the laity, the divine and the human, and celestial and terrestrial. In studying ‘modern religious outlooks’ Durkheim (1976) enumerates several characteristics. He elaborates the concept of humanism and recognises new characteristics: a progress toward equality, a process more amenable to the masses and pluralism. Kitagawa (1967) includes Japan and Asia, providing proof that some kind of modernity has also emerged in the East. He highlights the “denunciation of religious formalism and the stress on inner devotion, (ibid: p. 88)” stressing absolute faith, absolute mind, and pure heart, mentioning the Reformation. Yet, he also emphasises the characteristically modern pursuit for genuineness. Thomas (2005) talks about this-worldliness in relation to that of Kitagawa, emphasising the revival of this-worldliness, the growth in prominence of vocational ethics and worldly action, and the denunciation of monasticism not just in Protestant religions but also in Buddhism, Sikhism, and Hinduism. Dillon (2003) is similar to Kitagawa (1967) regarding the “changing evaluation of man... man conceived as supreme and the stress on human love, (ibid: p. 93)” thus, he furthers, “a new religious emphasis on service to people” (Kitagawa 1967: 93). Unlike any other scholars, Kitagawa (1967) raises the “increase lay tendency of religion” (ibid: p. 85), the “accelerated approach to the masses” (ibid: p. 52), and the “heightened movement toward equality of man and anti-discrimination,” (ibid: p. 97) with its religious and worldly forms, which can be tied to Weber’s (1965) concepts of emergence of masses and individualism. Moreover, Weber (1965) emphasises the emergence of the thinking that each religion is important, such as the recognition of pluralism, a usual global impact of modernity. Fascinatingly, Asad (2003) explains that all of these transformations underline humanistic and positive features of religion, such as the importance of the body, without regard for the fear of damnation, and that, consequently the enhanced importance of an individual, there is a new stress on ethical standards in religion. However, he argues that all these transformations are more evident in the Western hemisphere. Majority of other global studies of the connection between modernity and religion have concentrated on secularisation, such as Durkheim (1976), and have underlined the following attributes: decline, this-worldliness, demonopolisation, and individualisation, tied to the widespread processes of functional discrimination, validation, and individualisation. Peter Berger (1967) has stressed particularly the emergence of pluralisation, subjectivisation, and secular worldviews. Dillon (2003) talks about subjectivism, pragmatism, and deregulation; he also emphasises the fact that the concept of modernity creates worldly guarantees it cannot fulfil, particularly in its current de-illusionised stage, which is beneficial to religious reformations, particularly the growth of an emotional form of religion giving importance to individual experience. Francoise Champion (1993) explains love ethics, relations with science, optimism, this-worldliness, and self-primacy. Aldridge (2007) has proved that the basic traits of modernity cites pluralism, rationalisation, individualisation, and functional differentiation could trigger religious restructuring and decline, the former particularly in ultramodernity since it reinterprets the importance of subjectivity, meaning, cultures, and traditions. Conclusions The development of religion since the Industrial Revolution based on the assumptions of various scholars points to the replacement of religious dogmas with individualism and rationalism; secularisation; the restoration of long-established institutions; the creation of quasi-religious organisations, like ideologies; and the formation of new kinds of religious doctrines and traditions. This essay emphasises the reality that pluralism can generate religious restoration. As to the scholars of postmodernism, they have underlined mobility, subjectivism, syncretism, and self-religion. Bibliography Aldridge, A. (2007) Religion in the Contemporary World 2nd ed. Oxford: Polity Press. Asad, T. (2003). Formations of the Secular. Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, Stanford University Press. Bellah, R.N. (1976) Beyond belief: Essays on religion in a post-traditional world. New York: Harper & Row. Berger, P. (1967) The sacred canopy. New York: Doubleday. Champion, F. (1993) ‘La ndbuteuse mystique-esoterique’ In Champion, F. & Hervieu-Leger, D. De l'emotion en religion. Paris: Centurion. Durkheim, E. (1976) The elementary forms of the religious life London: Allen and Unwin. Dillon, M. (2003) A handbook of the sociology of religion Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hamilton, M. (2001) The sociology of religion: theoretical and comparative perspectives London: Routledge. Jaspers, K. (1954) Origine et sens de l’histoire. Paris: Plon. Kitagawa, J.M. (1967) ‘Primitive, classical, and modern religions’ in The history of religion. Essays on problems of understanding. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Melton, J.G. (1998) ‘Modern alternative religions in the west’ in Hinnels, J.R. ed., A new handbook of living religions, Harmondworth, UK: Penguin. Thomas, S.M. (2005) The global resurgence of religion and the transformation of international relations: the struggle for the soul of the Twenty-first Century Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Weber, M. (1965) The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism London: Allen & Unwin. Read More