Psychotropic Medications, Psychopath and Violence - Essay Example

There are mental illnesses that are said to be significant predictors of violence. People undergoing psychotropic medications and or those who might be labeled psychopath are more likely considered to be those who can be capable of initiating violence or any other related activities. A study reveals that the rates of psychotropic medications were significantly higher than women and men who reported intimate partner violence (Romans, Cohen, Forte, Mont & Hyman, 2008). In this study, the rates of medication that adults use who are exposed to intimate physical violence like physical, sexual, emotional and financial were compared to the rates of those subjects who reported no intimate physical violence. The research study shows that more women were exposed to psychotropic medications than men. This can imply that women compared to men are the easiest subjects or targets for physical, sexual, emotional and financial factors that may eventually lead to physical violence. As a result, they need treatment for whatever is necessary or required in order to stabilize their vulnerability or at least alleviate their mental health condition. This study therefore shows how vulnerable are men and women to psychotropic medications who correspondingly reported to have substantial experience with intimate partner violence. In this study alone, the relevant findings support the idea that psychotropic medications can be a relevant predictor of violence. Another relevant study that at some point possesses the same point reveals that in the province of Quebec in Canada, another research study shows that job strain, extrinsic efforts-rewards ratio, interpersonal violence and psychotropic drug use have remarkable association (Lavigne & Bourbonnais, 2010). Specifically, the study reveals that “the prevalence of psychotropic drug use among correctional officers was 14.7%. The prevalence ratios (PR) for the associations between job strain, extrinsic efforts–rewards ratio, social support from colleagues and supervisors, intimidation and psychological harassment adjusted for age and gender were respectively 1.4 (95% CI 0.9–2.2), 1.6 (95% CI 1.2–2.2), 1.7 (95% CI 1.3–2.3), 1.4 (95% CI 0.9–2.4) and 1.5 (95% CI 1.1–2.0)” (Lavigne & Bourbonnais, 2010, p.122). This definitely suggests the point that intimidation and psychological harassment may be significantly present at the place of work and these alone can have the potential to result to any other forms of violence or stress-producing factors that may require psychotropic medications. The third study concerning psychotropic medications also reveals that those children who have adverse childhood experiences like violence that may potentially result to childhood traumatic stressors and eventually adult mental illnesses can undergo psychotropic medications just like what adults of the same situation may undergo. This is a significant observation based on the design of a research study that aimed to find the adverse childhood experiences and prescribed psychotropic medications in adults (Anda et al., 2007). The point of this study leads to the idea that considering children are more likely vulnerable to any other violence that may potentially apply in their age, the likelihood of them taking psychotropic medications during adulthood might be higher. This is a significant implication of the research finding. In other words, this is another important research study that may be able to reveal or support the concept that psychotropic medications may be a relevant predictor of violence. On the other hand, aside from the evidence of psychotropic medication as the potential angle for determining the occurrence of violence, psychopath may be another important point that not will not just illustrate the link between violence and mental problem, but may point out that violence may be a potential trigger. “Psychopathy reflects a pathological form of personality that predisposes individuals to risk for perpetration of chronic and severe violence across their lifespan” (Reidy, Kearns & DeGue, 2013, p.389). This as a result will give rise to the cases that will constitute a portion of societal burden to the public health and criminal justice systems. Therefore, this information allows shows the point that psychopathy may have substantial contribution to other violent-related activities, based on the context that it adds societal burden to the public health and criminal justice systems. In this case, it is always important to understand the mental health condition of a person, so as to also understand his or her potential or capacity to contribute to the creation of crime. Abnormalities in the brain, especially somewhere in the fronto-temporo-limbic network are a basis of psychopathy (Reyes, Amador, Garcia & Sosa, 2013). This means that these abnormalities will help determine the likelihood of an individual to be labeled as a violent offender. In other words, it will make sense to try to understand the violence from the point of understanding the mental health condition of a person by studying his brain function or health condition. Study reveals that psychopaths are said to lack violence inhibitor, an inhibitor that allows people to distinguish what is moral or not (Blair, 1995). Therefore, psychopaths and violence may be a significant link in this case that will lead to the point that psychopathy is a relevant perspective or angle to consider especially in event of crime or investigation of violence. For this reason, it is important to consider that during the investigation of crime or violence, the state of mind of a person is always a good angle to consider. The work at hand so far points the idea that the mental health of a person may have significant contribution to the creation of crime or violence. In the other way, it may also provide essential idea that violence may have significantly transpired leading to the point that the mental health of a person was compromised. In other words, the above essential points about psychotropic medications and psychopathy reveal how someone might be engaged in violence, especially in the creation or being a subject of it. The above findings also showcase the point that crime investigators or those who are in the field of understanding violence may have relevant scientific proof or background about the point that violence and mental health problem of a person can have relevant point to tell concerning the emancipation of violence or the creation of it. It therefore cannot be overlooked to always understand the mental health problem of a person especially on the part of the crime investigators. It is always a point of consideration for them to understand the remarkable predictors of violence so that in this way it will always easy for them to solve or hinder violence, at some certain level. Therefore, it is always a good idea or point to consider scientific investigations relevant to the concepts of psychotropic medications and psychopathy. These two mental health issues have significant things to say in order to help solve violence, alleviate or probably hinder its occurrence or probably hinder its occurrence. In a nutshell, the work at hand provided some essential studies or research investigations that may point out or support the point that psychotropic medications and psychopathy may be essential predictors of violence. On the ground of establishing this point, law enforcers should always take into account the essential contribution of mental health problems in the creation or proliferation of crime or violence. The nature of understanding this might be too scientific in its sense, but as just presented in the relevant findings of the studies presented in the work at hand, it was shown that there is a good point to look violence in the context of one’s mental health problem. Thus, as far as psychotropic medication and psychopathy are labeled mental health problems, they remain to have essential connections to the emancipation or creation of violence, at some point. However, more research investigations are required to essentially establish this point. References Anda, R. F., Brown, D. W., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2007). Adverse Childhood Experiences and Prescribed Psychotropic Medications in Adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(5), 389-394. Blair, R. J. R. (1995). A cognitive developmental approach to morality: investigating the psychopath. Cognition, 57(1), 1-29. Lavigne, E., & Bourbonnais, R. (2010). Psychosocial work environment, interpersonal violence at work and psychotropic drug use among correctional officers. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 33(2), 122-129. Reidy, D. E., Kearns, M. C., & DeGue, S. (2013). Reducing psychopathic violence: A review of the treatment literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(5), 527-538. Reyes, A. C., Amador, A. A., Garcia, L. G., & Sosa, M. V. (2013). EEG abnormalities in psychopath and non-psychopath violent offenders. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 20(1), 19-26. Romans, S. E., Cohen, M. M., Forte, T., Mont, J. D., & Hyman, I. (2008). Gender and psychotropic medication use: The role of intimate partner violence. Preventive Medicine, 46(6), 615-621. Articles EEG abnormalities in psychopath and non-psychopath violent offenders Original Research ArticleJournal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, Volume 20, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 19-26 Ana Calzada-Reyes, Alfredo Alvarez-Amador, Lídice Galán-García, Mitchell Valdés-Sosa Abstract Previous EEG studies attempted to examine violent behavior as homogeneous construct. Up to date, there is no other research studying Low-Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography (LORETA) technique in psychopath offenders. Objective To find electrophysiological differences specifically related to the psychopathy construct and independent of the violent behavior. The current investigation compares the QEEG and the current source density measures of violent psychopath offenders to a non-psychopath violent group. Methods The resting EEG activity and LORETA for the EEG spectral fast bands were evaluated in 58 violent offenders, 31 with and 27 without psychopathy according to the Hare Psychopathy Checklist – Revised. All subjects were assessed using the DSM IV-R criteria. The EEG visual inspection characteristics and the use of frequency domain quantitative analysis techniques (Narrow band spectral parameters) are described. Results QEEG analysis showed a pattern of excess of beta activity on the left parieto-temporal regions and bilateral occipital areas and decrease of alpha band on the left centro-temporal and parieto-central derivations in the psychopath group. LORETA signified an increase of beta activity (17.18 Hz) in psychopath group relative to a non- psychopath group within fronto-temporo-limbic regions. Conclusions These findings indicate that QEEG analysis and techniques of source localization may reveal differences in brain electrical activity among offenders with psychopathy, which was not obvious to visual inspection. Taken together, these results suggest that abnormalities in a fronto-temporo-limbic network play a relevant role in the neurobiological basis of psychopathy. A cognitive developmental approach to morality: investigating the psychopath Original Research Article Cognition, Volume 57, Issue 1, October 1995, Pages 1-29 R.J.R. Blair Various social animal species have been noted to inhibit aggressive attacks when a conspecific displays submission cues. Blair (1993) has suggested that humans possess a functionally similar mechanism which mediates the suppression of aggression in the context of distress cues. He has suggested that this mechanism is a prerequisite for the development of the moral/conventional distinction; the consistently observed distinction in subjects judgments between moral and conventional transgressions. Psychopaths may lack this violence inhibitor. A causal model is developed showing how the lack of this mechanism would explain the core behavioural symptoms associated with the psychopathic disorder. A prediction of such a causal model would be that psychopaths should fail to make the moral/conventional distinction. This prediction was confirmed. The implication of this finding for other theories of morality is discussed. Reducing psychopathic violence: A review of the treatment literature Review Article Aggression and Violent Behavior, Volume 18, Issue 5, September–October 2013, Pages 527-538 Dennis E. Reidy, Megan C. Kearns, Sarah DeGue Psychopathy reflects a pathological form of personality that predisposes individuals to risk for perpetration of chronic and severe violence across their lifespan. The violence attributable to psychopathic persons constitutes a substantial portion of the societal burden to the public health and criminal justice systems and thus necessitates significant attention by prevention experts. However, there is a relatively nascent literature that has examined psychopathic persons response to treatment, especially considering violence as an outcome. Nevertheless, there have been repeated averments about the amenability (or lack thereof) of psychopathy to treatment. In the present paper, we attempt to provide a comprehensive review of studies assessing the relation of psychopathy to violence outcomes following intervention. Our review of studies suggests there is reason to suspect that specific and tailored interventions which take into consideration psychopathic persons unique patterns of behavioral conditioning and predispositions may have the potential to reduce violence. However, equally important, certain interventions may potentially exacerbate these persons violent behavior. The nature of the outcomes is likely highly dependent on the specific components of the intervention itself. We conclude that future research should increase methodological rigor by striving to include treatment control groups and increasing the transparency of the implemented interventions. Adverse Childhood Experiences and Prescribed Psychotropic Medications in Adults Original Research Article American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume 32, Issue 5, May 2007, Pages 389-394 Robert F. Anda, David W. Brown, Vincent J. Felitti, J. Douglas Bremner, Shanta R. Dube, Wayne H. Giles Background Prescription drugs are one of the fastest growing healthcare costs in the United States. However, the long-term influence of child abuse and related traumatic stressors on prescriptions for psychotropic medications in adults has not been described. This study assessed the relationship of eight adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) to rates of prescriptions for psychotropic medications throughout adulthood. These ACEs included: abuse (emotional, physical, or sexual), witnessing domestic violence, growing up with substance abusing, mentally ill, or criminal household members, and parental separation/divorce. Methods Data about ACEs were collected between 1995 and 1997 from adult health maintenance organization patients; prescription data were available from 1997 to 2004. The number of ACEs (ACE Score: maximum 8) was used as a measure of cumulative traumatic stress during childhood. The relationship of the score to rates of prescribed psychotropic drugs was prospectively assessed among 15,033 adult patients eligible for the follow-up phase of the study (mean follow-up: 6.1 years). Data were analyzed in 2006. Multivariate models were adjusted for age, race, gender, and education. Results Prescription rates increased yearly during the follow-up and in a graded fashion as the ACE Score increased (p for trend Read More