Theories of Teaching and Learning - Literature review Example

Theories of teaching and learning Institution: Name: Theories of teaching and learning Figure 1: Venn diagram on learning theories The behaviorism approach in learning The major focus or concern of the behaviorism relies on the observable indicators that learning is taking place. However, cognitive psychologists on the other hand equate the learning process with mental processes in the learners’ mind. According to Jarvis (2005), behaviorists do not deny the fact that mental processes exist. The behaviorists agree that mental processes are rather indication that learning is taking place despite being unobservable. Skinner who was the father of the behaviorism theory pointed out that learning is a sequence of both stimulus as well as response actions which are present in the observable cause as well as in the effect relationship. The example of the behaviorists is a clear indication of classical conditioning that is a demonstration of a process that human beings responds to existing neutral stimulus in a manner that is mostly associated with unconditioned stimulus. The application of the operant conditioning in education is not only simple but also directs (Cooper, 2010). Teaching can be defined as an arrangement of various contingencies of reinforcement that students learn. In most cases, learners can effectively learn without being taught for example, if they are placed in the natural environment. However, teachers have the role of arranging special contingencies in order to expedite learning thus hasten appearance of learner’s behavior that would have been otherwise acquired slowly (Campbell & Zazkis, 2002). According to Skinner, complex learning could easily take place through process of contingencies as well as reinforcement. In applying the theoretical principles of the behaviorism theory to various learning environment, it is evident that there are various learning artifacts in learning. For example, the dissection mainly of traditional teaching approaches is an indication of how behaviorists have influenced learning. In the concept of directed instruction, teachers impart knowledge to the students either through a set of contingencies or directly and it is one of the concepts of behaviorist model. Further use of exams in measuring observable behavior of learning, use of punishment and rewards are some of the examples of behaviorist model influence (Gagnon & Collay, 2001). In the today’s society and with the development of technology, computer assisted learning have become one of the tools for teaching. Drawing from the behaviorism perspective it is an effective method of learning. Computer Assisted Instruction applies drill and practice approach in teaching new skills or concepts. Constructive learning perspective Constructivist learning and teaching is not only based on active processes but also on the construction of knowledge that originates from learning through actions. If a learner explores and remains active during the learning process, it is evident that there are several forms of learning. This results into practical and theoretical problem. Paget assumption is that every teacher should asses the learners’ previous knowledge prior to introducing new concepts. This will assist in determining the students’ level of learning. The teacher will also be able to locate where to introduce new processes that will not only influence scheme but also structures. According to Piaget the tasks should not be too demanding as the learner will be incapable of solving them because he/she has not developed necessary structures. However, Vigotski argues that with help, a child can solve different tasks (Campbell & Zazkis, 2002). Vigotski in his work categorizes skills based on problem solving and groups them into three categories. Skills that a learner cannot perform Skills that a learner has the capability of performing Skills that a learner can perform with some assistance Help is required at the beginning of the learning process so that learners can develop suitable strategies. The teacher provides the student with various supports such as encouragement, hints and dividing the given tasks into smaller proportion. The mentioned is a representation of the scaffolding that is described as processes whereby an adult offers the initial support to children with an aim of constructing their understanding. However, the support is later withdrawn when the child has successfully acquired independent capabilities. The child will later have the capabilities of solving problems individually or even assist other children according to Vigotski. Vigotski further points out the aspect of proximal development and argues that a child will successfully accomplish a given task if necessary assistance is given (Kozulin, 2003). The differences between constructivism and behaviorism models The behaviorism focuses on learning through observation and they believe that learners need reinforcements as positive stimulus for good actions while punishment should be used to correct mistakes. According to McGregor (2007), the environment shapes learners behavior; therefore, it is important for the learning process to be in steps. Behaviorists apply one or two categories of explanations for learning. One is based on the effects of behavior while the other is based on continuity (Wilson, Peterson & National Education Association of the United States, 2006). The constructivism on the other hand views the learning process as a place where new ideas are constructed in the learners mind. The model is mainly based on the learners past experience/knowledge. The model places the learners at the center of the learning process and the learning itself is perceived as individual process. In this process, knowledge is acquired through internalization. According to Jarvis (2005), the teacher is a facilitator who assists learners to acquire new materials by providing them with interesting tasks and problem solving tasks. Fontana (1984), in his work defined, the constructivism as a number of related views that perceive knowledge as a construction of humans. The constructivism model views the knowledge of the learners as adaptive. Therefore, the role of the teacher is mainly to challenge the way of thinking of the learners. This is because the constructivism theory is linked to construction. In comparing constructivism to behaviorism model, it is evident that behaviorism is more focused on the changes of behavior via changes of the learners mental state. Learning therefore is perceived as a process of conditioning or changing observable behavior as a response particularly to selective reinforcement of the response of an individual. The mind of a born child is perceived as a tabula rasa or an empty vessel that need to be fulfilled by information from the surrounding environment. The role of the teacher is to transmit the information present in the surrounding environment to the learners mind. Martin & Loomis (2007), points out that behaviorism not only relies on transmission of instructions but also on the strict control from the teacher. Therefore, behaviorism is a teacher directed method. Consequently, behaviorists believe that it is possible to have a chosen objective knowledge to describe the world. Additionally, the process of learning can be reduced to transmission. The model further states that the knowledge of one-person i.e that of the teacher can be passed down to the minds of others i.e the learners. The aim of the teachers is to various events to the learners. In a given context, learners are taught about the world and are expected to replicate the structure as well as the content in their own thinking. The behaviorist approach has led to emergence of a new model of teaching that is stereotyped and which the modern methodologists have highly criticized. Some of the key aspects that are being criticized are the teacher directed model. This is because the model provides the learners with minimal opportunity for both self-realization and creativity. In the textbooks, the learners are presented with pictures on what need to be studied. This makes the students to have minimal opportunity to ask questions and be creative. While behaviorism model depends on behavior manifestation and objectiveness, cognitivist focuses on representation, though and meaning. Therefore, there is difference in the manner in which learners acquire knowledge. Furthermore, different means and goals are chosen for the learning process (Bowers, 2005). In both constructivism and behaviorism, the roles of the teachers and the students are different. Gagnon & Collay (2001) points out that radical constructivists learning conception, teachers act as intermediaries to ensure that learners understand different concepts. However, the behaviorist model emphasizes the mechanics of the knowledge transfer. Gagnon & Collay (2006), in the constructivism, the teacher is not opposed to the transfer of new knowledge/materials to the learners rather ensure that students are willing to learn new concepts. Leonard (2002) views teachers as facilitators, coaches, coordinators, resource advisors or tutors. Therefore, learning concept is central to constructivism. Compared to behaviorism theory that either main objective is to provide new knowledge/concepts to the learners through reinforcement or punishment, the constructivism model emphasizes on the importance of showing learners ways of studying correctly. In other words, it can be pointed out that constructivism focuses on the learning process while behaviorism focuses on the product. In conclusion, in the modern learning and teaching methodologies, there is a developing tendency to change the behaviorist approach, which has been popular during the past years. Some of the new approaches that have been proposed for the purpose of effective learning is the constructivism. This is because it encourages imagination and creativity as well as aiding in developing critical thinking skills among learners. References Bowers, C. A. (2005). The false promises of constructivist theories of learning: A global and ecological critique. New York: Lang. Campbell, S. R., & Zazkis, R. (2002). Learning and teaching number theory: Research in cognition and instruction. Westport, Conn. [u.a.: Ablex Pub. Cooper, J. M. (2010). Classroom teaching skills. Belmonte, CA: Brookes/Cole. Fontana, D. (1984). Behaviourism and learning theory in education. Edinburgh: Scottish Acad. Pr. Gagnon, G. W., & Collay, M. (2001). Designing for learning: Six elements in constructivist classrooms. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Calif. Gagnon, G. W., & Collay, M. (2006). Constructivist learning design: Key questions for teaching to standards. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin Press. Jarvis, M. (2005). The psychology of effective learning and teaching. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for teachers. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Kozulin, A. (2003). Vygotsky's educational theory in cultural context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning theories: A to Z. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Martin, D. J., & Loomis, K. S. (2007). Building teachers: A constructivist approach to introducing education. Australia: Thomson Wadsworth. McGregor, D. (2007). Developing thinking; developing learning: A guide to thinking skills in education. Maidenhead: Open Univ. Press. Wilson, S. M., Peterson, P. L., & National Education Association of the United States. (2006). Theories of learning and teaching what do they mean for educators?. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Read More